•NRLF 


WOODEN  CROSS-SECTION  CARDS. 

FOR  FANCY  AND  BUSINESS  PURPOSES. 

(Patented  Keto.  9,  1886.) 

The  novelty  and  attractiveness  of  these  Wooden  cards  cut  across  the  grain  will  at  once  recommend 
them  to  every  admirer  of  woods. 

They  are  manufactured  from  timbers  of  close  grain  and  their  toughness,    ivory  like  smoothness 
and  beauty  are  a  surprise 

by  any  Paper,  and  they 


Their  Printing  Qualit 
are  of  greatest  value  as 


This  is  owing  to  the  fact  1 
cipients  of  such  cards  are 
friends  as  something  curi< 
advertisement. 

They  are  also  approp 

CALLING  CAF 


RECEPTION 


Being  perfectly  adaptt 
or  plain  as  gift  cards  of  al 
pretty  use. 

N.  B.    In  using  water  co' 

the  admixture  of  a  little  turpet 

punch  ;  and  when  using  with  g 

the  surface  the  card  is  to  be  gli 

For  scale  of  sizes  see  oppos 


Library 


-KIDS. . 

ion  at  once,  and  the  re- 
showing  them  to  their 
displaying  the  imprinted 


MG  AND 


>,  ETC.,  ETC. 

e  used  thus  embellished 
try  these  cards  for  this 


with  Colors  "cut"  the  oil  by 
,  use  a  solid  or  "conductor's" ! 
:iot  upon  the  card  but,  upon 


, ..,  ™.r,..w..~  w.    ..-JDS. 

These  are  perfect  for  displaying  before  an  audience  by  means  of  a  magic-lantern,  the  structure  of 
our  various  timbers.  All  the  principal  species  are  designed  to  be  represented  and  each  one  is  identified 
beyond  question  of  doubt.  No  one  who  has  an  instrument  should  be  without  these  interesting  and  in- 
structive preparations. 

MICROSCOPIC  PREPARATIONS  OF  WOODS. 

These,  like  the  stereopticon  mounts,  are  authentic  and  elegantly  prepared.  Each  slide  contains 
three  sections — transverse,  radial,  and  tangential — which  give  a  most  perfect  opportunity  for  studying 
the  minute  structure. 

PREPARATIONS  OF  WOODS  SHOWING  PRISMATIC  COLORS. 

Although  wood  is  so  common  a  substance,  very  few  people  have  ever  known  of  these  interesting 
and  beautiful  phenomena.  For  mention  of  one  form  of  the  display  of  colors,  such  as  seen  in  the  Cu- 
cumber Wood,  see  accompanying  text  p.  40,  Note. 

Prices  furnished  upon  application. 


PART  I. 


CASE 


THE 

AMERICAN  WOODS, 

.5  1  *      )      3  ) 

EXHIBITED  BY  ACTUAL  SPECIMENS'', 

AND  WITH  COPIOUS  EXPLANATORY  TEXT, 


BY 


ROMEYN  B.  HOUGH,  B.  A. 


PART   I. 

REPRESENTING  TWENTY-FIVE  SPECIES 


BY 


TWENTY-SEVEN  SETS  OF  SECTIONS. 


LOWVTLLE,  N.  Y.,  U.  S.  A.: 

PUBLISHED  AND  SECTIONS  PREPARED  BY  THE  AUTHOR. 

1888. 


SID  5  3 
H55 

>/.  I 


BIOLOGY  LIBRARV 


Copyrighted  eighteen  hundred  and  eighty7 -eight. 
BY   ROMEYN    B.    HOUGH. 


WEED,    PARSONS   &   CO., 

ELECTROTYPERS     AND     PRINTERS, 
ALBANY,    N.  Y. 


TO 

THEE  IMHEMOK/ST  OF 

MY   FATHER, 
FRANKLIN    B.    HOUQH, 

J1S  AN  EXPRESSION  DF  GRATITUDE  FDR  THE  CARE  TAKEN  TD  INCLINE 
MY  FIRST  THOUGHTS  TD  A  CONTEMPLATION  OF  THE  WORKS  DF 
NATURE,  FOR  GUIDANCE  AND  CONSTANT  INSPIRATION 
IN  AFTER  YEARS,  AND  BUT  FOR  WHOSE  SUGGES- 
TION THIS  WORK  WOULD  NEVER  HAVE  AP- 
PEARED, IT  IS  MOST  AFFECTION- 
ATELY DEDICATED, 


7431 22 


PREFACE, 


The  necessity  of  more  generally  diffused  information  concerning  the 
variety  and  importance  of  our  forest  trees  is  justification  enough  for  the 
appearance  of  this  work,  especially  at  this  day,  when  the  demands  of 
Forestry  in  this  country  are  constantly  more  and  more  keenly  felt.  The 
work  was  undertaken  at  the  suggestion  of  my  father,  whose  intense  in- 
terest in  Forestry,  and  a  kindred  taste,  at  once  gave  me  inspiration  to  the 
work.  It  was  entered  upon  with  the  expectation  of  his  valuable  com- 
panionship and  counsel  during  its  progress,  but,  alas!  that  I  was  destined 
to  have  only  at  the  outset,  and,  while  I  was  then  left  ever  to  mourn  the 
loss  of  a  kind  father,  companion  and  teacher,  the  reader  must  fail  to  find 
in  these  pages  that  value  and  finish  which  his  mind  would  have  given 
them. 

Among  the  happiest  pictures  of  my  memory  are  those  in  which  I  see 
my  father's  delight,  as  I  would  show  to  him,  from  time  to  time,  my  suc- 
cessful progress  in  devising  a  way  of  making  the  sections  for  this  work, 
and  if  only  for  the  happiness  which  its  appearance  would  have  caused 
him,  could  he  have  lived  until  this  day,  I  have  felt  duty-bound  to  go  on 
with  it,  even  though  left  to  do  it  alone. 

The  work  is  the  outgrowth  of  one,  of  somewhat  similar  plan,  proposed 
by  my  father  some  years  since,  but  which  he  did  not  carry  into  effect. 
Its  design  is  primarily  and  principally  to  show,  in  as  compact  and 
perfect  a  manner  as  possible,  authentic  specimens  of  our  American  woods, 
both  native  and  introduced.  For  that  end  three  sections,  respectively 
transverse,  radial  and  tangential  to  the  grain  (see  Glossary),  are  made  of 
each  timber,  sufficiently  thin  to  allow  in  a  measure  the  transmission  of 
light,  and  securely  mounted  in  well  made  frames. 

The  three  planes  above  mentioned  show  the  grain  from  all  sides,  so  to 
speak,  no  plane  being  possible  but  that  would  be  either  one  of  them 
or  a  combination  of  them.  The  difficulty,  however,  of  cutting  a  great 
number  of  sections  exactly  on  those  planes  is  obvious,  so  let  it  be  under- 
stood that  the  terms,  "transverse,"  "radial"  and  "tangential,"  are,  in 
many  cases,  only  approximately  exact  in  their  application. 


vi  PREFACE. 

My  endeavor  is  to  show,  either  in  a  part  or  all  of  the  sections  standing 
to  represent  a  species,  both  the  heart  and  sap-wood,  but  with  some  woods 
as  the  Sumach,  for  instance,  where  usually  only  the  outermost  ring,  or  a 
part  of  it,  could  be  said  to  represent  the  sap-wood,  the  display  of  that  is 
quite  impossible.  In  certain  other  woods,  as  the  Spruce,  etc.,  the  tran- 
sition from  sap  to  heart-wood  is  almost  indistinguishable  by  any  diiference 
in  color,  and,  although  both  may  be  shown  in  the  sections,  one  can 
scarcely  distinguish  between  them. 

The  text  of  this  work  has  been  added  rather  as  a  secondary  matter, 
to  supply  to  those  not  having  it  in  other  form,  such  information  as  is  of 
importance,  in  connection  with  the  wood  specimens,  to  give  a  fairly  good 
acquaintance  with  the  trees  represented.  It  contains  little,  if  any  thing, 
new  to  the  botanist,  but  to  others  it  is  hoped  it  may  be  of  some  value. 

In  its  preparation  some  use  has  been  made  of  my  father's  Elements  of 
Forestry,  and  thanks  are  due  the  publishers  of  that  work  —  Messrs. 
Robert  Clarke  &  Co.  of  Cincinnati,  Ohio  —  for  the  use  of  cuts  in  repro- 
ducing a  number  of  its  illustrations.  Other  valuable  books  of  reference 
have  been  the  works  of  Drs.  Gray,  Wood  and  Bessey,  LeMaout  and 
Decaisne's  Descriptive  and  Analytical  Botany,  Prof.  C.  S.  Sargent's  Re- 
port on  the  Forest  Trees  of  North  America,  (constituting  Vol.  IX, 
Ninth  Census  of  the  United  States,  1880),  Micheaux  and  Nuttall's 
North  American  Sylva,  George  B.  Emerson's  Trees  and  Shrubs  of 
Massachusetts,  D.  J.  Browne's  Trees  of  America,  etc. 

I  gratefully  acknowledge  the  courtesies  extended  by  Professors  W.  R. 
Dudley,  Charles  E.  Bessey,  and  to  my  classmate  and  companion  on 
many  a  "  botanical  tramp,"  Prof.  William  Trelease,  as  well  as  others  whose 
names  I  have  not  space  to  mention,  but  towards  whom  the  same  grati- 
tude is  felt.  To  Rev.  J.  Hermann  Wibbe,  Prof.  Leo  Lesquereux  and 
Mrs.  Elizabeth  G.  Britton,  for  aid  in  determining  respectively  the  Ger- 
man, French  and  Spanish  synonyms,  I  am  heartily  grateful.  Last,  but 
bv  no  means  least,  I  have  to  acknowledge  the  very  material  aid  received 
first  from  my  father's  counsel  in  planning  the  work,  and  then  from 
others  as  near  and  dear,  in  its  prosecution,  proof-reading,  etc. 

To  those  not  familiar  with  the  scientific  classification  of  natural 
objects,  a  few  words  must  be  said  regarding  that  and  the  application  of 
descriptions.  A  number  of  species,  having  certain  characters  in  com- 
mon, are  gathered  together  into  a  group,  called  a  genus  (pi.  genera),  and 
a  number  of  these  in  turn,  upon  the  strength  of  common  characters, 
into  a  higher  group  called  an  order,  and  still  higher  are  various  other 
groupings,  ranked  by  authors  under  various  names.  The  order,  then, 
is  made  up  of  genera  and  the  genus  of  species,  and  since  it  is  custo- 
mary in  technical  descriptions  to  define  these  groups,  so  I  have  done 


PREFACE.  vii 

with  those  species,  we  have  to  consider.  In  studying  the  descriptions 
one  must  commence  with  the  order  or  highest  group,  and  work  down  to 
the  species,  in  order  to  learn  all  the  characters  of  that  species. 

It  will  be  noticed  that  each  species  is  labeled  with  technical,,  English, 
German,  French  and  Spanish  names.  The  technical  or  scientific  name 
is  derived  usually  from  the  Greek  and  Latin,  and  is  of  inestimable  value 
to  the  scientific  world  because  of  its  exactness,  and  of  its  being  under- 
stood in  all  nations.  Following  the  technical  name  are  the  English 
synonyms  in  most  common  use,  and  then  the  German,  French  and 
Spanish  names.  But  naturally  in  a  country  like  this,  where  the  English 
language  almost  universally  prevails,  our  native  trees  have  no  colloquial 
names  in  other  languages.  In  such  cases  we  have  simply  translated  either 
the  technical  or  English  name.  Their  value,  therefore,  as  synonyms 
strictly  speaking,  must  be  taken  with  some  latitude.  With  a  few  species 
colloquial  names  in  foreign  languages  have  been  found,  and  in  such 
cases  preference  has  been  given  them. 

The  authenticity  of  the  timbers  represented  in  this  work  has  been  a 
subject  of  personal  attention  and  special  care  on  the  part  of  the  author. 
The  trees  selected  for  specimens  have  been  identified  in  the  field,  before 
felling,  while  the  leaves,  flowers  or  fruit  (one  or  all)  have  been  obtain- 
able, and  he  can,  hence,  vouch  for  the  authenticity  of  every  specimen 
represented. 

Succeeding  parts,  uniform  in  style  with  Part  I.,  and  representing  in 
each  case  twenty-five  additional  species,  are  planned  to  appear  later,  with 
the  ultimate  end  in  view,  of  representing,  as  nearly  as  possible,  all  of  the 
American  woods,  or  at  least  the  most  important,  in  such  a  series  of 
volumes  as  this  one. 

Upon  the  reception  which  this  meets  in  public  favor,  and  upon  the 
co-operation  of  those  interested  in  the  cause,  must  naturally  depend  the 
carrying  out  of  that  plan.  It  is  hoped  that  greater  experience  and  skill 
will  enable  us  to  obviate  in  future  parts  the  faults  which  occur,  from 
lack  of  those  qualities,  in  this. 

Notice  of  errors  in  this  work  will  be  thankfully  received  in  hopes  of 
profiting  therefrom  in  the  future. 

LOWVILLE,  N.  Y.,  March  30,  1888. 


INTRODUCTION. 


1.  It  has  been  deemed  imperative  by  way  of  introduction  to  the  study 
of  the  trees  included  in  this  series,  to  give  something  of  an  account  of 
the  technical  terms  used  in  descriptive  botany.    They  are  words  of  pecu- 
liar and  very  exact  signification,  and  in  this,  as  in  other  branches  of 
science,  their  use  is  of  necessity,  if  we  would  describe  an  object,  as  a  plant 
for  instance,  with  such  accuracy  as  to  enable  one  to  recognize  it  from  our 
description. 

2.  A  clear  understanding,  therefore,  of  the  technical  terms  so  far  as 
used  in  this  work  must  be  had  at  the  outset.     But  great  technicality 
we    have    endeavored    to    avoid,    from    the    fact    that    those    already 
familiar  with  the  species  represented  will  not  need  the  descriptions,  and 
for  those  who  are  not,  and  for  whom  they  are  introduced,  they  must  be 
made  as  simple  as  possible. 

3.  While  this  preparatory  part  then  is  necessary,  we  shall  endeavor  to 
keep  it  within  as  strict  limits  as  the  object  in  hantd  will  permit.     Much 
that  should  be  included,  were  we  to  study  all  plants,  herbaceous  as  well 
as  woody,  will  not  here  be  needed  and  consequently  will  not  be  touched 
upon. 

4.  A  plant  —  of  which  of  course  a  tree  is  only  a  large  example  —  con- 
sists primarily  of  three  organs,  the  root,  the  stem  and  the  leaf.     These 
are  all  that  are  necessary,  so  far  as  the  plant  itself  is  concerned,  for  the 
performance  of  the  one  great  purpose  of  the  vegetable  kingdom  —  the 
conversion  of  inorganic  into  organic  matter. 

5.  When  special  functions  are  to  be  performed,  such  as  the  repro- 
duction of  the  species,  protection  to  the  plant  or  storage  of  food  for  its 
future  use,  etc.,  no  new  organs  are  created.     Those  already  existing  are 
simply  altered   in   their  functions  and   so   specialized  as  to   meet  the 
desired  end. 

6.  The  Root  we  will  not  stop  to  consider,  as  it  is  unimportant  to  our 
present  purpose.     The  stem  will  need  but  little  space.     The  leaf  and  its 
morphology,  to  a  certain  extent,  will  require  considerable. 

THE  STEM. 

7.  This  in  trees  is  spoken  of  as  the  trunk,  and  it  needs  our  considera- 
tion here  only  so  much  as  to  look  a  little  into  its  structure  and  determine 
its  method  of  growth,  for  by  this  we  may  know  in  which  of  the  two 
great  classes  of  Flowering  Plants  it  belongs.     But  before  defining  these 
classes  we  will  have  to  understand  something  of  the 

8.  Structure  of  Wood.  The  elements  which  make  up  the  substance 
of  wood,  or  the  parts  of  which  it  is  ultimately  composed,  are  cells, — 
minute  closed  cavities, —  elongated  in  the  direction  of  the  grain,  with 


INTRODUCTION. 


extremities  tapering  |;o  a  point  and  more  or  less  thickened  walls.     Their 

tapering  ends  overlap  each  other,  and   in  this  way  give  greater  strength 

and    toughness  to  the  tissue. 

H.    The  walls  of   contiguous  cells  are   found  to  have  pits  or  thin   spots 

exactly  opposite  each  other,  but  these  do  not  amount  to  perforations,  and, 

at  least  while  the  cell  is  in  an  active  and  growing  state,  there  is  no  direct 

connection    or    passageway    between    the    interior    of    one    and    that    of 

another.      The  pits  are  usually  plainly  discernible  under  a   microscope  of 

high  power.  Fig.  1  represents  a  few  wood-cells  from  Pine  limber  and  the 
comparatively  large  pits  there  shown, —  called  bordered 
pits. —  are  characteristic  of  all  the  representatives  of  the 
Pine  family. 

10.  By  a  process  known  as  oxwox/x  the  sap  passes  from 
one  cell  to  another,  and  so  on  throughout  the  length  of 
tin-  tree. 

1  1 .  Among  the  cells  are  cert  a  i  n  channels  or  air-passages, 
which  are  often  so  large  as  to  be  plainly  visible  to  the 
naked  eve.  They  are  known  as  t/ttc/s,  and  are  formed 
from  large  and  blunt  cells  arranged  end  to  end  together, 
and  in  time  their  end  partitions  become  more  or  less 
obliterated.  Their  walls  are  variously  marked  with  promi- 
nence and  depressions  disposed  often  with  great  regularity. 

Tn    Fig.   "2  are  shown   the  cells,  ducts,  etc.,  as  seen  in   the    I>eech    wood 

highly  magnified. 

P-2.  It    would   be   interesting 

to  dwell   longer  on  the  micro- 
scopic structure  of   wood,  and 

si  udy  its  wonderful  forms  and 

arrangement;  but  we  will  have 

to    leave    that    to    the    reader, 

who  with  his  magnifier  can  see 

for  himself  considerable,  even 

in   the  accompanying  sect  ions, 

although    thinner  sections   are 

needed  for  high  magnification. 
I.'].  Such     in     brief     is    the 

structure  of  what  is  known  as 

the    ("  fibro-vascular "    system, 

which  makes  up  the  substance 

of  wood.      Its  arrangement   in 

t  he  stem  may  be   in   eit  her  one 

of   two  ways,  and    upon  this  is 

based   tin-   first  division    in    the 

classification       of 

Plants. 


Flowering 


FTO.  2. 


14.   The  Exogenous  Stem.   (L.   ex  from  or  outside  of  and  yen  us 
origin)  is  characterized    by   having  a  central   column   of  pith    (made   up 

na^nitii'd.      ( From 


Fur.     1.    \Voo(l-cells    ,,f    tin-    Tine,    slio\\ 
IIoiiL'li's  Klements  of  Forestry.) 

¥\<jr.  'J.  Section  (tangential)  of  Heecli  wood,  showing,  /',  /"',  <'*<'• 
m,  medullary  ruvs  cut  across.  Magnified  i>ofi  diameter-.  |F 
Forestry,  i 


mis  forms  of  cells,  and 
Houtrli's     Kkments   of 


THE  LEAF.  3 

of  subspherical  cells)  and  this  surrounded  by  wood  —  a  layer  of  fibro- 
vascular  tissue  —  which  in  turn  is  surrounded  by  bark.  Such  a  stem 
increases  in  thickness  by  the  growth  of  new  tissue  between  the  wood  and 
bark,  adding  each  year  a  new  sheath  —  ring  as  seen  in  cross-section  —  to 
the  outside  of  the  wood  (whence  the  name)  and  a  new  lining  to  the  bark. 
All- the  trees  of  the  colder  climates  belong  to  this  class. 

15.  There  exists  in   the  wood  of  exogenous  stems,  besides  the  fiber 
described  above  (8-11),  medullary  rays,  which  make  the  silver-grain  in. 
the  language  of  wood  workers.     They  are  narrow  plates  radiating  from 
pith  to  bark,  and  are  composed  of  short  flattened  cells.    They  are  shown 
in  Fig.  2,  m,  as  cut  across  and  highly  magnified,  and  in  Fig.  3  as  seen 
from  all  sides.     The  trans- 
verse   section,    Q    (Fig.    3) 

shows  them  as  seen  from 
above,  resembling  lines  radi- 
ating out  from  the  center. 
The  radial  section,  Sp,  shows 
their  width,  the  transverse, 
Q,  their  thickness  and 
length,  and  the  tangen- 
tial, Sc,  as  cut  across.  Their 
great  range  of  variation  in 
size  and  appearance  in  dif- 
ferent timbers  can  be  beauti- 
fully studied  in  the  wood 
sections,  which  are  designed 
to  be  cut  on  those  planes. 

16.  The  Endogenous  Stem.  (L.  endo,  within.,  and  genus,  origin)  is 
characterized  by  having  the  wood  disposed  in  threads  or  bundles  (called 
fibro-vascular  bundles)  throughout  the  pithlike  substance  of  the  interior. 
It  increases  in  thickness  by  the  growth  of  new  bundles  within  the -stem 
(whence  its  name),  and  it  has  no  real  bark.     The  class  is  represented  by 
the  Palms  and  similar  trees  of  tropical  countries,  and  in  colder  climates 
by  many  herbaceous  plants.     The  Indian  Corn  is  a  familiar  example  in 
the  North  and  the  Palmetto  in  the  South. 


FIG.  3. 


THE  LEAF. 

17.  This  is  a  thin,  expanded  organ  for  presenting  a  large  amount  of 
surface  to  the  action  of  sun-light  and  air,  and  this  for  the  performance 
of  one  of  the  most  important  workings  of  Nature.    The  function  referred 
to  is  known  as  assimilation,  or  the  conversion  of  mineral  or  inorganic 
matter  into  living  or  organic  matter,  and  upon  it  directly  or  indirectly 
depend  all  forms  of  life.     Nowhere  else  in  the  whole  realm  of  Nature  is 
this  work  performed  than  in  plants,  and  there  by  the  agency  of  its  leaves, 
to  which  the  rest  of  the  plant  each  part  in  its  way  is  accessory. 

18.  How  the  sap  is  brought  up  through  the  substance  of  the  stem  to 

Fig.  3.  Structure  of  the  Oak  at  two  years  of  age,  showing,  m  (upper  side),  pith  consisting 
of,  m',  spongy  portion  and,  m  (under  side),  medullary  sheath  ;  ?t,  wood  of  two  years  growth,  jj 
being  the  dividing  line;  c,  cambium  layer;  r,  bark  and,  1-7,  medullary  rays,  (^represents  the 
transverse  section,  Sp  the  radial  and  Sc  the  tangential  sections.  (From  Hough's  Elements 
of  Forestry.) 


INTRODUCTION. 


....  Blade. 


the  leaf,  and  there  comes  in  contact  with  the  air  which  enters  through 
the  myriads  of  stomata  —  little  mouths  or  breathing  pores  —  which  cover 
its  surface,  and  how,  so  far  as  we  can  see,  the  function  is  there  performed, 
are  studies  full  of  greatest  interest.  But  it  would  be  foreign  to  the 
object  of  this  text  to  further  follow  them  now,  however  enticing. 

19.  Nor  can  we  in  this  place  touch  upon  the  interesting  subject  of  the 
differentiation  of  leaves  for  special  purposes,  such  as  for  pitchers,  fly- 
traps, a  means  of  support  or  defense,  depositories  for  food,  etc.   All  such 
are  found,  and  one  can  scarcely  walk  far  in  the  fields  in  summer  without 
finding  examples. 

20.  We  must  here  turn  our  attention  to  the  forms  of  leaves  and  such 
of  their  points  as  are  important  in  the  identification  of  trees. 

21.  The  Parts  of  a  Leaf,  if  we  examine  one  such  as  we  would  call 
typical,  perfect  and  serving  only  its  primary  purpose  —  that  of  foliage  — 
are  three,  as  follows  : — (1)  the  blade  or  lamina,  which  is  the  flat  and 
expanded  portion,  with  its  surfaces  ordinarily  presented  upwards  and 
downwards;  (2)   the  stalk  or  petiole,  which  supports  the  blade  on  its 
summit,  and  (3)  the  stipules,  which  are  two  usually  small  and  more  or 
less  leaf-like  appendages  at  the  base  of  the  petiole,  one  on  each  side. 

22.  Very  commonly  the  stipules  are  absent  when 
the  leaf  is"  said  to  be  exstiputate.     They  often  fall 
away  early,  while  the   leaf    is  expanding,  or   they 
may  persist  as  little  blades    at,  but  quite    distinct 
from,  the  base  of  the  petiole,  or  adnate  to  it  making 
wing-like  expansions.      Occasionally   their   margins 
are  united  so  as  to  form  a  sheath  surrounding  the 
base  of    the  petiole  as  seen  in    the  Sycamore.      In 
color  and  substance  they  may  be  like  the  leaf,  but 
are  often  of    different  color,  or  colorless,  and  thin 
and  membraneous. 

23.  Sometimes  the  petiole  is    absent,  the    blade 
springing  immediately  from  the  stem  of   the  plant.     Such  leaves  are 
called  sessile,  i.  e.,  seated  (from  L.  sedeo  to  sit.) 

24.  The  term  "leaf,"  as  ordinarily  used,  is  applied  to  the  blade,  which 
is  its  most  conspicuous  and  important  part. 

25.  On  further  examination  of  our  leaf  we  will  see  that  it  is  made  up 
of  a  framework,  consisting  of  a  fibrous  or  woody  material,  and  a  softer 
part,  a  green  pulp,  filling  in  the  interstices.     The  framework  is  plainly 
arranged,  so  as  to  give  the  leaf  stiffness  and  support,  and  we  speak  of  it 
as  consisting  of  ribs  and  veins. 

26.  When  there  is  a  central  main  branch,  it  is  known  as  the  midrib, 
and  the  branches  leading  off  from  this  on  each  side  are  spoken  of  as  the 
veins,  and  their  branches  as  veinlets.     This  leads  us  to  the  study  of 

27.  Venation, —  the   arrangement  of  the  ribs  and  veins  of  a  leaf. 
This  is  a  subject  of  great  importance,  and,  with  other  features  which  are 
quite  constantly  associated,  it  enters  as  an  important  matter  in  the  classi- 
fication of  plants.     We  shall  see  that  there  are  primarily  two  grand  sys- 
tems of  venation.     The  leaves  representing  one  system  are  spoken  of  as 

28.  Netted-veined  or  Reticulated  —  when  there  are  one  or  several  main 

Fig.  4.  A  Simple,  Pinnately-veined  Leaf,  showing  parts. 


Petiole. 


Stipules. 


FIG.  4. 


FORMS  OF  LEAVES. 


ribs,  from  along  which  branches  lead  off  dividing  and  subdividing  several 
times,  and  then  finally  anastomosing  so  as  to  form  literally  a  net-work 
of  veins;  whence  the  name  of  this  kind  of  venation.  (Figs.  19  and  41.) 

29.  When  there  is  a  single  main  rib  running  through  the  center  of  the 
leaf  from  base  to  apex,  and  sending  off  branches  from  each  side  like  the 
vanes  of  a  feather,  it  is  said  to  be  feather-veined  OY  p innately  veined  (from 
L.  pinna,   a  feather.)     These   leaves  are  usually  longer  than  broad. 
(Figs.  4  and  19.) 

30.  When  there  are  several  main  ribs  radiating  from  the  summit  of 
the  petiole  through  the  substance  of  the  leaf,  and  these  in  turn  sending 
out  their  branches,  the  leaf  is  said  to  be  from  that  fact  radiate-veined  or 
palmately  (from  L.  palma,  the  hand)  or  digitately  (from  L.  digitus,  the 
finger)  veined,  from  resemblance  to  the  hand,  witli  fingers  spread  apart. 
(Fig.  5.)     Leaves  of  this  type  are  broader  in  proportion  to  length  than 
the  pinnately  veined-.     Contrasted  with  the  netted- 

veined  leaves  are  the 

31.  Parallel-veined,  where  the  veins  commence  at 
the  base  of  the  leaf,  and  run  approximately  parallel 
to  the  summit,  where  they  again  unite,  and  only 
minute  simple  cross-veinlets,  if  any,  are  given  off. 
Leaves  of  this   sort   are   seen   in   Grasses,  Wheat, 
Indian  Corn,  Solomon's  Seal,  etc.   A  modification  of 
this  kind  of  venation  is  seen  in  the  Calla,  Banana,  etc., 
where  the  veins  run  out  transversely  to  the  margins. 

32.  The  plants  having  parallel  veined  leaves  com- 
prise a  large  and  important  .class,  but  in  temperate 
climates  they  are  nearly  all  herbaceous  and  not  for 
our  consideration  here. 


FIG.  5. 


33.  The  Forms  of  Leaves  are  intimately  connected  with  the  vena- 
tion.    They  are  very  various,  but  as  a  rule  quite  constant  within  the 
same  species,  and  consequently  form  an  important  item  in  the  classifica- 
tion of  plants. 

34.  We  need  to  consider  especially  the  elongated  types  as  most  com- 
monly seen  associated  with  the  pinnate  venation.     To  get  the  best  idea 
of  the  forms  of  these  leaves,  we  might  group  them  as  follows: — (1)  those 
of  about  uniform  width;  (2)  those  broadest  near  the  base;  (3)  at  about 
the  center,  and  (4)  near  the  apex.     Taking  them  in  this  order  a  leaf  is 
said  to  be 

Linear,  when  the  sides  are  parallel, 
i.  e.,  when  it  is  of  uniform  width,  and 
is  several  or  many  times  longer  than 
broad.  (Fig.  6.) 

Oblong,  when  of  uniform  width,  but 
only  two  or  three  times  as  long  as 
broad.  (Fig.  7.) 

Lanceolate,  when  broadest  at  the 
base,  and  tapering  to  the  apex  or  both 
Linear.  Obiong.  Lanceolate,  ways,  and  is  four  or  five  times  or  more 

FIG.  6.  FIG.  7.  FIG.  8.  longer  than  broad.  (Fig.  8.) 

Fig.  5.  A  Palmately-veined  Leaf. 


6 


INTKODUCTION. 


Ovate. 

FIG.  9. 


Deltoid. 

FIG.  10. 


Elliptical. 

FIG.  11. 


Ovate,  similar  to  lanceolate,  but  with  length  not  more  than  two  or 
three  times  the  width.  (Fig.  9.) 

Deltoid,  triangular  in  shape  like 
the  Greek  letter,  Delta,  from  which 
it  takes  its  name.  (Fig.  10.) 

Elliptical,  when  broadest  in  the 
center,  two  or  three  times  as  long  as 
broad,  and  the  ends  of  about  the  same 
width.  (Fig.  11.) 

Oval  or  Broadly  Elliptical,  same 
but  proportionally  broader,  the 
length  being  considerably  less  than 
twice  the  width.  It  is  between 
elliptical  and  orbicular  or  rotund, where  length  and  breadth  are  about 
equal.  (Fig.  12.) 

Oblanceolate,  same  as  lanceolate, 
but  reversed  so  as  to  be  broadest  near 
the  apex,  the  long  taper  to  the  petiole 
and  the  short  one  to  the  apex. 

Spatulate,  shaped  like  a  spatula  — 
similar  to  oblanceolate,  but  with 
rounded  instead  of  pointed  apex. 
(Fig.  13.) 

Cuneate  or  cuneiform,  when  shaped 
like  a  wedge,  broadest  at  the  trun- 
cate apex  and  tapering  uniformly  to  the  base.  (Fig.  14.)  Obovate, 
similar  to  ovate  but  reversed  —  the  broadest  part  near  the  apex,  and 
base  narrow. 

35.  The  Base  and  the  Apex  of  the  Leaf  are  also  important  points 
to  observe,  and  the  principal  forms  for  our  present  consideration  may  be 
seen,  with  the  names  applied  to  them,  in  the  accompanying  diagrams. 
(Fig.  15.) 


Orbicular. 

FIG.  12. 


Spatulate. 

FIG.  13. 


FIG.  15. 


Acute,  when  the  sides  come  together  at  an  acute  angle.  Acuminate 
or  taper-pointed,  when  the  taper  is  more  prolonged  —  tapering  to  a 
sharper  point. 

Obtuse  when  blunt  or  rounded,  the  sides  meeting  at  an  obtuse  angle. 

Mucronate,  when  an  obtuse  apex  is  tipped  with  a  small  abrupt  point. 

Fig.  15.  Forms  of  Base  and  Apex  of  Leaves. 


THE  COMPOUND  LEAF. 


Undulate. 


Aristate  or  awn-pointed,  like  mucronate  but  with  a  longer  and  more 
or  less  bristle-shape  point. 

Cuspidate,  when  the  point  is  sharp  and  rigid. 

Truncate,  when  an  extremity  is  so  blunt  as  to  seem  cut  squarely  off. 
Retuse,  when  slightly  notched.  Emarginate,  when  more  decidedly 
notched.  Cordate  or  heart-shaped,  when  deeply  emarginate  at  the  base. 
Obcordate,  when  deeply  emarginate  at  the  apex. 

36.  While  the  bases  of  opposite  sides  of  a  leaf  usually  develop  about 
uniformly  it  is  not  always  the  case,  and  such  leaves  are  spoken  of  as 
oblique  or  inequilateral  at  base.     They  are  quite  characteristic  of  the 
Elms,  and  Fig.  15  shows  some  of  these 

leaves,  but  there  the  obliquity  is  not  so 
marked  as  is  often  the  case. 

37.  The  Margin  of   the   Leaf,  as 

shown  in  Fig.  16  is 

Entire,  when  of  even  continuous  out- 
line —  without  projections  or  indentations. 

Serrate,  when  furnished  with  small  and 
sharp  teeth,  pointing  towards  the  apex, 
like  the  teeth  of  a  saw. 

Dentate,  when  the  teeth  are  small  and 
point  outward  from  the  center  of  the  leaf 
instead  of  forward. 

Incised  or  jagged,  when  the  teeth  are 
long,  sharp  and  irregular. 

Crenate,  similar  to  dentate,  but  with 
broad  and  rounded  teeth. 

Undulate,  wavy  or  repand,  when  slightly 
scalloped  with  wavy  outline. 

Sinuate,  same  as  undulate,  but  with 
deeper  indentations,  which  here  and  in 
the  following  classes  are  called  sinuses. 

Lobed,  when  the  sinuses  are  more  or 
less  rounded  and  deeper,  but  entering  not 
more  than  half  way  to  the  midrib  or  base 
of  the  leaf.  The  term  "lobed"  is  often 
applied  in  a  general  way,  regardless  of 
the  depth  or  form  of  the  sinuses,  when 
the  leaf  is  cut  into  a  definite  number  of 
lobes,  and  it  is  said  to  be  tivo-lobed,  five- 
lobed,  many-lobed,  etc.,  as  the  case  may  be. 

Cleft,  same  as  lobcd,  but  with  usually 
narrow  and  pointed  sinuses  entering  half 
way  to  the  midrib  or  base. 

Parted,  when  the  incisions  enter  nearly  to  the  midrib  or  base. 

Divided,  when  they  reach  the  midrib  or  base;  and  this  leads  us  to  the 
consideration  of 

38.  The  Compound  Leaf — a  leaf  consisting  of  several  blades,  with 
a  common  petiole  or  main  leaf-stalk  (Figs.  17  and  18),  and  in  this  cliffer- 

Fig.  16.  Forms  of  Margins  of  Leaves. 


Parted. 


Divided. 


FIG. 


8  INTUODDCTION. 

ing  from  the  simple  leaf,  as  already  described  (Fig.  4),  which  has  but  a 
single  blade.  The  separate  blades  of  a  compound  leaf  are  called  leaflets 
and  the  foregoing  terms,  used  of  the  form,  margin,  etc.,  of  the  simple 
leaf,  are  equally  applicable  to  the  leaflet.  They  may  be  sessile  on  the 
main  leaf-stalk,  or  they  may  be  supported  on  stalklets  of  their  own  — 
called  petiolules  —  and  these  may  or  may  not  be  jointed  or  articulated  to 
the  main  stalk,  just  as  that  is  to  the  branch.  There  are  two  classes  of 
compound  leaves,  corresponding  to  each  other  as  do  the  pinnately  and 
palmately- veined  simple  leaves.  They  are  as  follows: 

39.  Pinnately  compound,  when  the  leaflets  are  arranged  along  the 
common  leaf-stalk  —  here  called  the  rachis  —  like  the  vanes  of  a  feather 
(whence  the  name),  or  like  the  veins  of  a  pinnately-veined  simple  leaf. 
When  the  rachis  terminates  with  a  single  leaflet  the  leaf  is  said  to  be 
oddly  or  unequally  pinnate;  when  with  a  pair  of  leaflets  it 
is  said  to  be  evenly,  equally  or  abruptly  pinnate. 

40.  Palmately  or  digitdtely  compound,  when  the  leaflets 
radiate  from  the  summit  of  the  leaf -stalk  as  do  the  veins 
of  the  palmately-veined  simple  leaf.     (-Fig.  18.     Compare 
with  Fig.  5.) 

41.  Sometimes  the  divisions  of  a  compound  leaf  instead 
of  being  simple  leaflets  are  themselves  compounded,  when 
the  leaf  is  said  to  be  twice  compound,  in  which  case  one  of 
the  main  divisions  is  called  a  pinna  (pi.  pinnae)  and  its 
subdivisions  are  called  leaflets;  when  these  are  compounded 
they  are  called  pinnules  and  their  subdivision  leaflets,  and 
the  whole  leaf  is  said  to  be  thrice  compound  —  pinnately 
or  palmately  as  the  case  may  be.     The  subdividing  may 

FIG.  17.         go  on  still  further,  and  on  the  same  plant  it  may  be  varia- 
ble.   For  such  leaves  the  term  decompound  is  used. 

42.  By  the  use  of  the  prefixes  hi,  tri,  etc.  (from  L.  bis,  twice,  ter, 
thrice,  etc.),  and  the  adjective  foliate  (L.  folium,  leaf),  the  number  of 
leaflets  of  a  compound  leaf  may  be  designated,  and  the  leaf  is  said  to  be 
pinnately  or  palmately  bifoliate,  trifoliate  (or  ternate),  etc.,  as  there  are 
two,  three,  etc.,  leaflets.     Using  the  same  prefix  to  designate  the  num- 
ber of  times  compounded  a  leaf  is  said  to  be  bipinnate  or  tripinnate 
when  twice  or  thrice  pinnately  compound,  etc. 

43.  The  Arrangement  of  Leaves   on  the 
Stem  (technically  known  as  pliyllotaxy)  is  not  by 
chance,  as  the  casual  observer  might  suppose.  The 
place  for  the  appearance  of  each  leaf  is  determined 
beforehand,  and  by  certain  laws  very  exact  and  beau- 
tiful in  their  workings.  We  cannot,however,consider 
them  to  any  extent  here.     It  must  suffice  in  this 
place  to  note  the  fact  that  but  one  leaf  springs 

from  the  same  point  on  the  stem,  and  there  are  pIG 

primarily  two  systems  of  arrangement,  as  follows: 

Alternate,  when  the  leaves  spring  one  from  a  joint  —  or  node,  as  it  is 
called —  and  alternately  from  opposite  sides  of  the  shoot.     (Fig.  19.) 

Fig.  17.  A  Pinnately  compound  Leaf. 
Fig.  18.  A  Palmately  compound  Leaf. 


INFLORESCENCE. 


FIG.  19. 


Opposite,  when  the  leaves  spring  two  from  a  joint,  and  on  directly 

opposite  sides; — arranged  along  the  stem  in  a  manner  similar  to  the 

arrangement  of  the  leaflets  along  the  rachis  of  the  compound  leaf  shown 

in  Fig.  17.     A  form  of  this  type  is  the  whorled  arrangement,  where  there 

are  more  than  two  leaves 

from  a  single  joint.     They 

are  then  disposed  at  equal 

distances  from  each  other 

in  a  whorl  or  circle  around 

the  stem. 

44.    In    the    Pine,    the 

Larch,  etc.,  we  find  leaves 

which    are    needle-shaped. 

They  are  arranged  in  fas- 
cicles or   bundles,  and,  at 

first  thought,  seem  to  violate 

the  law  that  only  one  leaf 

springs  from  the  same  point, 

but   that  is  not  the  case. 

They  are   really   arranged 

according  to  the  established 

laws,  but  along  very  short  and  undeveloped  branchlets,  and  so  crowded 

together  as  to  appear  in  clusters.     (Fig.  20 .) 

45;  The  foliage  of  Pines  is  curious,  in  that  there  are 
two  sorts  of  leaves: — (1)  the  primary  leaves  which  are 
scale-like  and  fall  away  early,  and  from  their  axils  appear 
(2)  the  secondary  leaves,  much  larger,  more  conspicuous 
and  arranged  in  fascicles  as  above  described. 

46.  Vernation  is  a  term  denoting  the  arrangement  of 
the  leaves  in  the  bud.     It  is  a  subject  of  importance  in  its 
place,  but  we  will  not  devote  space  to  it  here.     The  few 
terms  which  may  occur  relating  to  it  will  be  explained  in 
the  Glossary. 

INFLORESCENCE. 

47.  This  term  (from  L.  in,  upon,  and  floreo,  to  flower) 
is  applied  to  the  situation  and  arrangement  of  the  flowers 
on  a  plant,  and  various  as  this  at  first  may  seem  to  be,  it 
is  all  reducible  to  an  easy  system  of  classification.     The 
location  of  every  flower  is  determined  by  the  same  laws 
which  apply  to  the  arrangement  of  the  leaves,  and  only 

in  those  places  do  they  appear.  They  develop  from  buds  which,  in 
early  stages,  are  indistinguishable  from  leaf-buds,  and  like  them  are 
either  terminal  or  axillary. 

48.  When  a  bud  develops  a  single  flower,  the  latter  is  spoken  of  as 
solitary,  and  the  stalk  supporting  it  is  its  peduncle.  In  case  of  a  cluster 
of  flowers  supported  by  a  common  stalk,  that  stalk  is  called  a  peduncle, 
and  each  branchlet  supporting  a  flower  is  called  a  pedicel.  A  flower  is 

Fig.  19.  Leaves  of  the  Red  Elm,  showing  "alternate"  arrangement.     (From  Hough's  Ele- 
ments of  Forestry.) 
Fig.  20.  Fascicle  of  Needle-shaped  Leaves  of  the  Pine.  (From  Hough's  Elements  of  Forestry.) 


FIG.  20. 


10 


INTRODUCTION. 


said  to  be  textile  when  it  has  no  peduncle  — i.  e.,  when  it  is  seated  close 
to  the  stem  of  the  plant. 

4:1).  The  leaves  of  a  flower  cluster  are  usually  very  much  reduced  in 
form- — often  mere  scales.  They  are  then  called  bracts  when  on  the 
petiole,  and  when  on  its  branches,  bractlets.  In  a  broader  sense 
••  bract  ''  refers  to  both  forms.  Sometimes  the  bracts  are  wanting  alto- 
u'ether.  In  case  a  ilower  appears  in  each  axil  of  leaves  which  regularly 
develop,  thev  are  not  spoken  of  as  forming  a  flower-cluster,  but  are  said 
to  be  solitary  and  axillary. 

50.  An  Indeterminate  Inflorescence  is  the  one  formed  when  the 
flowers  appear  from  axillary  buds,  while  the  terminal  bud  continues 
developing  leaves  and  prolonging  indefinitely  the  common  axis.  In  this 
form  the  blossoming  commences  below  and  progresses  upward  —  is  said 
to  be  axcendintj —  the  older  buds  developing  their  flowers  first,  and  in 
case1  their  pedicels  are  considerably  prolonged,  so  as  to  make  a  broad 
flat  flower-cluster,  the  outer  flowers  develop  before  the  central  ones. 

From  that  fact  the  inflorescence  is  said  to  be  centripetal. 

51.  The    principal    forms   of    the 
Indeterminate  Inflorescence  are  the 
following: 

52.  .1    Raceme,   when  the  flowers 
are  arranged  singly  along  a  common 
axis,  and  furnished  with  pedicels  of 
about     equal     length.       (Fig.      21.) 
Sometimes  the  buds  along  the  axis, 
instead  of  developing  single  flowers, 
develop  little  racemes  of  flowers,  when 
the  whole  cluster  is  spoken   of  as  a 
compound     raceme.        When     rather 

irregularly  compound,  as  in  the  Oatalpa,  Oat,  etc.,  it  is  spoken  of  as  a 
panicle,  and  a  compact  pyramidal  form  of  this,  as  presented  by  the 
flower-cluster  of  the  Horse-chestnut  or  a  bunch  of  grapes,  is  called  a 
thyrsus. 

53.  A  Corymb   differs    from   a   raceme 
in  having  the  lower  pedicles  longer,  so  as 
to  raise  their  flowers  nearly  or  quite  to 
the   level   of  the   uppermost.      (Fig.  22.) 

54.  An  Umbel  is  a  cluster   where   the 
pedicels   are  all   prolonged,  and  grow  all 
from  the  summit  of  the  peduncle.      (Fig. 
23.)     They  are  here  called  rat/x,  and  are 
often    subtended    by   a   whorl   of    bracts, 
called    an     involucre.      In    the    compound 
umbel    each    ray    supports,    instead    of   a 
single    flower,    a    little    umbel,    called    an 
nmbelJet,  and  its  whorl  of  bracts  if  there  be  one 

55.  A  Sj)ikf.  differs  from  a  raceme  in  that  the  flowers  have,  no  pedicels 
i.   e.,    they   are  sessile   along   the  axis   of   inflorescence,  which    is   here 

>f  as  the  ravlds.      (Fig-  2-1.)      A.   pendent,  spike,  as  seen 

Figs,  iil-ii-i.  Forms  of  Indeterminate  Inflorescence. 


Corymb. 

Fio.  22. 


THE  FLOWER.  11 

in  the  Poplar,  etc.,  is  called  a  catkin  or  ament.  A  thick  fleshy  spike  is 
called  a  spadix,  and  this  is  often  furnished  with  imperfect  flowers,  and 
surrounded  by  a  peculiar  enveloping  sheath,  called  a  spathe;  as  seen  in 
the  Calla,  Indian  Turnip,  etc.,  or  the  spadix  may  be  naked  as  in  the 
Cat-tail  Flag  (Typha). 

56.  A  Head  is  a  form  of  inflorescence  where  the  flowers  are  sessile 
and  springing  all  from  a  very  short  and  somewhat  enlarged  axis,  known 
as  the  receptacle.     The  Button-ball,  Button-bush,  etc.,  afford  familiar 
examples.    Sometimes  the  head  is  subtended  by  a  whorl  of  bracts,  called 
here  also  an  involucre,  as  seen  in  the  Dandelion,  etc. 

57.  Determinate    Inflorescence  is  a    form  where  the  flowers  ap- 
pear from  terminal  buds;  consequently  the  further  growth  of  the  axis 
in  that  direction  there  terminates.     Should  there  be  a  single  flower  it  is 
spoken  of  as  terminal  and  solitary.     When  there  is  a  cluster  of  flowers 
the  order  of  blossoming  is  just  the  reverse  of  what  we  saw  in  the  inde- 
terminate type.     It  is  descending,  i.  e.,  the  uppermost  flowers  develop 
first  and  the  lower  ones  later.     When  they  form  a  broad  and  flat  flower- 
cluster,  those  in  the  center  open  first  and  the  outer  ones  later.     Hence  it 
is  said  to  be  centrifugal  in  order  of  development.  The  cluster  is  spoken  of  as 

58.  A  Cyme  —  the  first  flower  appearing  from  the  terminal  bud,  and 
then  at  the  ends  of  naked  or  bracted  shoots  from  the  nearest  axillary 
buds;  then  from  the  next  lower  and  so  on.     (Fig.  25.)     The  simplest 
form  is  just  the  reverse  of  a  simple  raceme.     (Compare  Figs.  21    -  ^ 
and  25.)     When  the  branching  continues  further  it  becomes  a    \/ 
compound  cyme.     (Fig,  26. )  >  ( 

59.  A  Fascicle  is  a  cyme  where  the  flowers  appear  in  a  close    \   Jf 
cluster  or  bundle,  as  the  origin  of  the  name  —  L.  fasciculus,  a 
little  bundle  —  indicates,  and 

60.  A   Glomerule  is  a  cyme  where  the  flowers  appear  in  a 
sort  of  head.     These  forms  may  be  recognized  by  their  centri- 
fugal  order  of  blossoming.  Cyme 

61.  Some  plants  represent  both  the  determinate  and  the  inde-  pIG<  35 
terminate  systems  of  inflorescence,  by  having  the  flowers  arranged 

in  the  clusters  of  one  system  and  these  clusters 
developing  in  the  order  of  the  other.  But  both 
systems  are  seldom,  if  ever,  represented  primarily 
in  one  cluster;  i.  e.,  plants  rarely,  if  ever,  produce 
flowers  from  loth  terminal  and  axillary  buds. 


THE  FLOWER. 

62.  The  object  of  the  flower,  in  vegetable  econ- 
°.my»  is  the  production  of  seed  for  the  perpetua- 
tion  °f  the  species.     In  its  complete  form  it  con- 
sists of  four  parts,  called  the  organs  of  the  flower. 
They  are  the  calyx,  corolla,  stamen  and  pistil. 

63.  Strange  as  it  may  seem  at  first  thought,  these  parts,  how- 
ever peculiar  in  form  or  in  color,  are  nothing  more  nor  less  than 
altered  leaves,  differentiated  for  the  special  purpose  of  reproduction. 

Figs.  25-26.  Forms  of  Determinate  Inflorescence. 


INTRODUCTION. 


Considering  them,  therefore,  as  leaves  arranged  in  whorls  on  a  base  or 
short  thickened  axis  —  called  the  receptacle  —  let  us  look  into  the 
arrangement  of  a  simple  typical  flower, —  one  in  which  all  the  parts  are 
present  and  in  the  simplest  form.  We  will  commence  our  examination 
below  and  work  upwards. 

64.  The  Calyx  is  the  lowest  or  outermost  whorl  of  the  leaves  of  the 
flower.     (Fig.  21a.)    It  is  usually  green  in  color,  but  not  always,  and  its 
principal  function  seems  to  be  the  protection  of  the  parts  within,  espe- 
cially while  developing  in  the  bud.     Its  parts  may  be  united  by  their 
edges,  forming  a  tube,  or  separate,  in  which  case  they  are  called  sepals. 

65.  The  Corolla  is  the   whorl  next  above  or  interior  to  the  calyx 
(Fig.  27#),  and  is  usually  of  more  delicate  structure,  and  of  some  other 
color  than   green.     Its   parts   may   be   separate,  when  they  are  called 
petals,  or  they  may  be  united  by  their  edges,  when  the  flower  is  spoken 
of  as  monopetalous,  in  distinction  from  polypetalous.     Again,  they  may 
be  very  dissimilar  in  shape  and  size,  when  the  corolla  is  said  to  be  irregu- 
lar.    It  is  usually  easily  recognized  by  its  delicate  structure  and  high 
coloring.     Sometimes  the  corolla  is  wanting,  when  the  flower  is  said  to 
be  apetalous. 

66.  The  functions  of  the  corolla  are  probably  two- fold; — protection 
to  a  certain  extent  to  the  parts  interior  to  it,  and,  it  would  seem  prin- 
cipally, attraction  by  means  of  its  bright  colors  for  insects  and  hum- 
ming birds,  which  in  the  grand  economy  of  nature  are  the  pollen-bearers 

—  miniature  match-makers  in  reality 
—  for  all  of  the  brightly  colored  or 
fragrant  flowers.  It  would  be  interest- 
ing in  this  connection  to  notice  how 
nicely  flowers  are  formed  with  refer- 
ence to  that  particular  end  —  i.  e.,  for 
insuring  cross-fertilization  through 
the  agency  of  these  tiny  messengers 
wholly  unconscious  of  the  part  they 
are  playing.  But  that  the  reader 
must  learn  elsewhere  or  see  for  him- 
self in  the  field. 

67.  The  calyx  and  corolla  are  spoken 

of  as  the  perianth,  or,  from  the  fact  of  their  enveloping  the  essential 
organs,  as  the  floral  envelopes.  They  are  considered  as  unessential  organs, 
because  the  elements  of  reproduction  do  not  occur  in  them,  and  one  or  both 
are  often  absent.  In  the  latter  case  the  flower  is  said  to  be  naked.  When 
only  one  is  absent  that  is  considered  as  the  corolla,  and  in  such  cases  the 
remaining  calyx  is  very  commonly  highly  colored  and  petal-like.  Some- 
times when  both  are  present  they  are  both  highly  colored  and  very  nearly 
alike.  Rarely  as  in  the  marginal  flowers  of  the  Hydrangea,  etc.,  they 
constitute  all  there  is  to  the  flower,  i.  e.,  the  essential  organs  are  absent, 
and  such  flowers  are  from  that  fact  neutral. 

68.  The  Stamens  sometimes  spoken  of  collectively  as  the  Androe- 
cium,  constitute  the  whorl  next  above  or  interior  to  the  corolla,  and  so 

Fig.  27.  Parts  of  a  Flower  detached  from  the  receptacle,  but  relative  positions  maintained, 
a,  sepal  —  one  of  the  leaves  of  the  calyx;  b,  petal  —  one  of  the  leaves  of  the  corolla;  c, 
stamen;  d,  pistil.  (From  Gray.) 


FIG.  27. 


THE  STAMENS. 


13 


FIG.  28. 


differentiated  are  they  as  to  lose  all  semblance  of  leaves  (Fig.  26c) .  A 
stamen  consists  of  two  parts:  a  stalk-like  portion  (Fig.  2$a),  called 
the  filament  and  an  end  or  head  (b),  which  is  the  anther.  The  anther  com- 
monly consists  of  two  cells  —  miniature  cases  —  which  open  at  the  proper 
season,  each  usually  by  a  longitudinal  slit,  to  liberate  their  contents  — 
a  very  fine,  golden  yellow  powder. 

69.  This  is  the  pollen,  which  is  to  perform  a  very  important  function, 
the  fertilization   of  the  ovule   in   order   that   it  may  become   a  seed. 
Although  to  the  unaided  eye  it  is  a  mere  powder,  under  the  microscope 
it  is  shown,  to  be  a  mass  of  symmetrical  bodies,  usually  spherical 

but  sometimes  elongated,  cubical,  triangular  etc.,  and  often 
beautifully  marked  with  bands,  checks,  spines,  etc.,  in  fantastic 
figures  of  endless  diversity,  but  always  constant  in  the  same 
species.  One  form  of  pollen  grain  is  shown  in  Fig.  42-16,  17. 

70.  The  Insertion  of  the  Stamens  is  usually  the  same  as  that 
of  the  corolla,  and  they  are  said  to  be  hypogenmu,  when  they 
are  inserted  beneath  the  ovary,  as  in  Figs.  41-2,  6;  perigynous, 
when  around  the  ovary  on  the  calyx-tube,  the  ovary  itself 
being  free,  as  in  Fig.  29;  epigynous,  when  on  the  top  of  the 
ovary,  or  on  the  calyx-tube  adherent  to  the  ovary  to  that  point. 

An  example  of  the  last  type  is  seen  in  the  apple  blossom.  The  stamens 
are  called  epipetalous,  wlien  inserted  on  the  corolla,  as  in  most  monope- 
talous  flowers. 

71.  The  Union  of  the  Stamens  with  each  other  may  be  by  means  of  their 
filaments  or  anthers,  and  when  no  union  at  all  exists,  they  are  said  to  be 

distinct.  United  by  their  filaments  they 
are  monadelphous  (from  Greek  words  sig- 
nifying a  single  brotherhood),  when 
united  in  one  set  so  as  to  form  a  tube  or 
ring;  diadelphous  (two  brotherhoods), 
when  united  into  two  sets,  and  so  on; 
polyadelphous  when  in  many  sets.  When 
the  stamens  are  united  by  their  anthers, 
they  are  said  to  be  syngenesious  (from 
Greek  GVV,  together,  and  ysvsaiS,  birth.) 
72.  The  Attachment  of  the  Anther  to 
the  Filament  is  important.  The  anther 

is  said  to  be  innate  when  it  is  seated,  as  it  were,  on  the  end  of  the 
filament;  adnate,  when  the  lobes  are  attached,  throughout  nearly  or 
quite  their  whole  length,  to  the  opposite  sides  of  the  filament.  The 
portion  of  the  filament  between  the  anther-cells  is  called  the  connective. 
A  versatile  anther  is  one  balanced  at  about  its  center  across  the  tip  of 
the  filament  and  upon  which  it  turns. 

73.  The  Dehiscence  of  the  Anther  (L.  dehisco,  to  gape  or  yawn)  is  the 
opening  of  the  cells,  for  the  discharge  of  its  pollen.  It  is  usually  by  a 
vertical  slit  in  each  cell  extending  their  full  length,  but  in  some  classes 
of  plants  it  is  by  a  chink,  a  terminal  pore  or  a  lid.  When  they  open  on 
the  side  towards  the  pistil  they  are  introrse,  and  when  away  from  it 
extrorse. 

Fig.  28.  Stamen,  a,  filament  and,  b,  anther  with  escaping  grains  of  pollen.     (From  Gray.) 
Fig.  29.  Flower  of  the  cherry,  cut  through  lengthwise.     (From  Gray.) 


FIG.  29. 


14  INTRODUCTION. 

74.  The  Pistil  is  the  uppermost  or  innermost  of  the  floral  whorls, 
sometimes  spoken  of  collectively  as  the  gynoedum9  and  here,  too,  we  see 
but  very  little  if  any  resemblance  to  leaves.   There  may  be  one  or  several 
pistils,  and  these  distinct  or  united. 

75.  A  perfect  pistil  consists  of  three  parts.     The  ovary  is  its  basal 
portion  and  within   this   are   the   ovules,*  one   or   many,  which   after 
fertilization  develop  into  seeds.     The  style  is  the  part  of  the  pistil  next 
above  the  ovary  —  a  sort  of  neck  connecting  it  with  the  part  above,  called 
the  stigma.     It  may  be  long  and  filamentous,  short  and  thick,  or  even 
wanting  altogether  when  the  stigma  is  said  to  be  sessile.     The  stigma  is 
the  portion  of  the  pistil  specialized  to  receive  the  pollen,  that  it  may 
fertilize  the  ovule.     It  forms  the  end  of  the  style,  but  not  infrequently 
extends  down  its  side,  when  the  style  is  spoken  of  as  stigmatic  down  its  side. 

76.  Pistils  are  simple  or  compound,  according  as  they  are  made  up  of 
one  or  more  leaves — pistil-leaves  or  carpel-leaves  as  they  are  called,  the 
word  carpel  meaning  a  simple  pistil  or  one  of  the  component  parts  of  a 
compound  pistil.     It  is  most  commonly  used  in  the  latter  signification. 
Often  there  is  not  the  slightest  resemblance  in  them  to  leaves,  but  an 
extended  study  of  the  different  forms  would  show  that  they  are  without 
doubt  altered  leaves,  and  our  simplest  way  of  considering  them  is  on  that 
supposition. 

77.  A  Simple  Pistil  is  formed  from  a  single  leaf  folded  along  the  mid- 
rib and  the  margins  brought  together,  the  upper  side  in,  thus  making  a 
single  celled  ovary,  a  single  style,  and,  as  a  rule,  a  single  stigma  —  but  the 

latter  may  consist  of  two  lobes  or  crests  instead  of 
being  simple.  The  line  corresponding  to  the  mid- 
rib is  called  the  dorsal  suture,  and  that  corre- 
sponding to  the  united  margins  the  ventral  suture. 

78.  The  ovules,  one  or  many,  are  borne  along 
the  united  margins,  and  these,  often  turned  in 
quite  a  little,  from  what  is  known  as  a  placenta 
(pi.  placentce).     A   flower   may   have   a   single 
simple  pistil  or  several,  but  in  the  latter  case 
they  must  be  distinct  in  order  to  corne  within 
the  definition. 

79.  A  Compound  Pistil  is  formed  from   two 
or  more  carpel  leaves  united  by  their  edges,  and 
its  compound  nature  is  shown   by  the  several 
cells   of    its   ovary,    and    its   several    styles   or 
stigmas  —  one  or  all.     From  this  definition  we 

FIG.  30.  see  the  degree  of  union  is  very  variable.    It  may 

be  only  at  the  base,  so  that  at  a  casual  glance 

the  carpels  may  seem  to  be  so  many  simple  pistils.  Then,  a  further 
union  is  seen  (Fig.  30)  where  only  the  styles  and  stigmas  are  distinct. 
A  still  further  union  is  found  in  the  pistil  of  the  Basa-wood  (Figs.  41- 
4,  6),  where,  externally,  only  a  five-lobed  stigma  suggests  its  compound 
nature,  the  style  being  single  and  the  ovary  apparently,  but  this  in 
section  is  shown  to  be  distinctly  five-celled. 

*For  terms  descriptive  of  the  parts,  kinds  and  positions  of  the  ovule,  see  101-105. 
Fig.  30.  Pistil  of  the  St  Johnswort,  shown  to  be  compound  by  its  three  styles  and  three 
cells  of  the  ovary.     (From  Gray.) 


THE  PISTIL.  15 

80.  The  degree  of  the  partitioning  of  a  compound  ovary  into  cells  is  also 
variable.     When  the  united  edges  of  the  carpel  leaves  do  not  turn  in  far, 
and  bear  their  ovules  along  the  lines  thus  formed  (placentae),  on  the 
walls  of  the  common  cell,  the  ovules  are  said  to  be  borne  on  parietal 
placenta?  (from  L.-  paries  a  wall). 

81.  Passing  now  many  intermediate  grades,  we  find  pistils  (Figs.  41- 
4,  5),  where  the  infolding  extends  to  the  center  or  axis  of  the  ovary, 
making  a  number  of  distinct  cells  by  complete  partitions  (called  dissepi- 
ments)',—  or  in  other  words,  the  pistil  seems  to  be  made  up  by  the  union 
along  their  sides  of  so  many  closed  carpels.     In  these  the  ovules  are  of 
course  borne  along  the  inner  or  central  sutures,  and  they  are  said  to  be 
on  axial  placenta*. 

82.  Cases  are  found  (Fig.  31),  in  which  the  partitions  have  entirely 
disappeared,  and  the  ovules  are  then  borne  upon  a  post  or  column  in  the 
center  of  the  ovary,  and  they  are  said 

to  be  on  a  free  axial  or  central  pla- 
centa, and  the  ovary  is  plainly  one- 
celled.  However,  the  compound 
nature  of  such  pistils  is  readily  seen 
by  the  number  of  styles  or  stigmas. 

83.  The  forms  of  pistils  considered 
above    are    closed    pistils,    and    they 
characterize  the  sub-class  of  Flowering 
Plants  known  as  Angiosperms  (Greek, 

ayyfiov  and  ffTtepjua,  enclosed  seed).  FIG.  31. 

The  only  way  the  pollen  can  reach  the 

enclosed  ovules  is  by  sending  out  very  minute  tubes,  which  penetrate 

through  the   stigma  and  down  the  style  to  them.     Another  form  of 

pistil  is 

84.  The  Open  Pistil.  In  this  the  carpel  leaf  instead  of  folding  together 
remains  open,  in   the  form  of  a  scale,  and  bears  two  or  more  ovules  on 
the  upper  (inner)  surface  near  the  base.     These  scales  grow  imbricated 
together  in  a  close  spike  —  cone  —  as  seen  in  the  representatives  of  the 
Pine  family.    At  the  time  of  flowering  they  are  divergent,  and  the  pollen 
is  allowed  to  fall  directly  onto  the  exposed  ovules.     The  scales  then 
close  together  and  remain  so  until  the  seeds  mature,  when  they  open  and 
liberate  them. 

85.  This  form  of  pistil  characterizes  the  remaining  sub-class  of  Flower- 
ing Plants,  viz.,  the  Gymnosperms  (Greek,  yvj^ros,  naked,  and  aTtep^a, 
seed). 

86.  We  have   now  found,  as  shown  in  the  foregoing  pages,  the  two 
parts  —  pollen  and  ovule  —  for  the  production  and  bringing  together  of 
which  all  the  parts  of  the  flower  fire  subservient.     The  organs  which 
produce  them  —  stamens  and  pistils  —  are  called  the  essential  organs, 
because  they  are  essential  for  the  propagation  of  the  species,  and  must 
always  exist  either  in  the  same  or  separate  flowers.     It  remains  for  us  to 
consider  certain 

87.  Terms  of  More  General  Application  to  the  Parts  of  the 
Flower.     In   our   type   flower,    shown   diagrammatically   in   Fig.    27, 

Fig.  31.  Flower  of  the  Purslane  cut  through  lengthwise.     (From  Gray.) 


16  INTRODUCTION. 

we  have  the  different  sets  of  organs  entirely  separate  from  each  other. 
From  this  they  are  said  to  be  free. 

88.  But  they  are  often  inseparably  joined  or  consolidated  to  a  certain 
extent  with  each  other,  when  they  are  said  to  be  adnate  or  adherent. 
In  Fig.  29,  the  corolla  and  stamens  are  shown  to  be  adnate  to  the  calyx, 
up  to  a  certain  point  —  in  other  words  they  are  inserted  on  the  calyx"— 
while  the  pistil  is  free.     In  this  the  ovary  is  superior  —  because  it  is 
superior  to  the  insertion  of  the  calyx  —  or  what  is  the  same  thing,  the 
calyx  is  inferior. 

89.  In  Fig.  31  there  is  shown  adhesion  of  the  calyx  (and,  of  course, 
of  the  corolla  and  stamens  also),  with  the  lower  half  of  the  ovary;  whence 
the  ovary  is  said  to  be  half-superior  or  the  calyx  half-inferior.     Still 
another  grade  of  adhesion  is  seen  in  the  Apple  blossom,  where  it  extends 
the  whole  length  of  the  ovary,  and  the  ovary  is  wholly  inferior  or  the 
calyx  superior.  • 

90.  Perfect'is  a  term  applied  to  a  blossom,  in  which  both  stamens  and 
pistil,  i.  e.,  both  sets  of  essential  organs,  are  present.     When  one  set  is 
lacking  the  flower  is  said  to  be  imperfect,  and  in  this  connection  the  fol- 
lowing terms  are  used; — staminate,  sterile  or  male,  when  the  flower  has 
stamens  and  no  pistil;  and  pistilate,  fertile.  QY  female,  when  it  has  a  pistil 
and  no  stamens. 

91.  When  the  staminate  and  pistilate  flowers  grow  on  separate  plants, 
the  species  is  said  to  be  dioecious  (from  Greek  diS  and  oinia,  dwelling 
separately);  and  when  on  the  same  plant,  but  in  different  flowers,  monoe- 
cious (from  Greek, —  in  a  single  dwelling).     The  word  diclinous  (from 
Greek, —  to  incline  in  two  ways),  is  applied  to  the  flowers  of  both  of  the 
above  classes.     Sometimes  both  perfect  and  imperfect  flowers  are  found 
on  the  same  plant  when  it  is  spoken  of  &$  polygamous. 

92.  Complete  is  a  term  which  designates  that  all  of  the  four  sets  of 
organs  —  calyx,  corolla,  stamens  and  pistil — are  present.     When  a  set  is 
lacking,  the  flower  is  said  to  be  incomplete. 

93.  Regular  is  a  term  designating  that  all  the  organs  of  the  same  kind 
are  alike  in  size  and  shape;  otherwise  the  flower  is  said  to  be  irregular, 
as  seen  in  the  Pea,  the  Violet,  etc.     When  the  parts  which  constitute  a 
set  are  separate  from  each  other  they  are  said  to  be  distinct;  otherwise, 
united  or  coherent. 

94.  Symmetrical  is  a  term  which  designates  that  there  is  the  same 
number  of  parts  in  each  set  of  organs:  and  this  suggests  the  considera- 
tion of 

95.  The   Numerical   Plan  of  the   Flower.     It  is  found  upon 
counting  the  parts  of  the  various  sets  of  organs  in   a  flower,  that  the 
same  number  is  quite  constant  throughout,  although  to  this  rule  there 
are  numerous  exceptions.     When  there  are  five  sepals  we  commonly  find 
five  petals,  five  (or  ten,  i.  e.,  two  sets  of  five  each)  stamens  and  five  ovary- 
cells  or  styles.     Five  is  here  said  to  be  its  numerical  plan.     In  other 
flowers  we  would  find  three  and  then  again  four  as  the  numerical  plan. 

96.  Aestivation  is  a  term  meaning  the  arrangement  of  the  parts  in 
the  flower-bud ;  just  as  vernation  has  reference  to  the  arrangement  of  the 
leaves  in  the  leaf -bud.     Such  terms  relating  to  this  subject  as  we  have 
occasion  to  use  will  be  explained  in  the  Glossary. 


THE  FRUIT. 


17 


THE  FRUIT. 

97.  The  Fruit  is  the  ripened  ovary  with  its  contents,  and  with  the 
calyx-tube  when  this  is  consolidated  with  it  as  conspicuously  in  the  Apple, 
the  Pear,  etc.     Our  definition  shows  that  the  word  "fruit"  in  technical 
language  does  not  exactly  coincide  with  its  meaning  in  com- 
mon use.    For  example,  the  Strawberry,  a  delicious  "  fruit/'  in 
common  language,  consists  principally  of   an  enlarged  fleshy 
receptacle,  no  fruit  at  all  in  technical  language,  while  the  true 

fruit  is  the  numerous  small  ripened  ovaries,  each  with  a  single 
seed,  which  cover  its  surface  and  could  hardly  be  thought  of  as 
even  edible. 

98.  The  ripened  wall  of  the  ovary,  with  the  adnate  part  of 

the  calyx,   if   any,   is  called  the  pericarp,  and  in  process  of  FIG.  32. 

maturing  it  may  remain  thin  and  dry  or  may  change  greatly 

by  becoming  thick,  pulpy  and 
juicy  —  when  it  is  said  to  be 
fleshy  —  or  part  may  become 
fleshy  and  the  rest  hard  as  seen 
in  the  Peach,  Cherry,  etc.  In 
these  cases,  where  the  pericarp  is 
distinctly  divisible  into  two  parts, 
the  outer  or  fleshy  part  is  called 
the  exocarp,  and  the  inner  or 
hard  part  the  endocarp  or  epi- 
carp,  which  is  the  stone  or  pit, 
and  within  this  the  "kernel"  is 
the  seed  proper. 

99.  When  the  pericarp  opens 
at  maturity  to  liberate  the  seeds, 
it  is  said  to  be  dehiscent  —  in  dis- 
tinction from  those  that  are  inde- 
hiscent,  or  do  not  thus  open; — 
FIG.  33.  and  when  the  dehiscence  is  along 

a  suture  or  partition  it  is  said  to 

be  septicidal,  or,  when  midway  between  the  sutures,  loculicidal.     Cir- 

cumcissile  is  a  mode  of  dehiscence  which  is  transversely  around  the 

pericarp. 

100.  Fruits  are  free  or  aggregated,  according  as  they  are  formed  by 

the  ripening  of  respectively,  a  single  (either  simple  or  compound)  pistil 

or  an  aggregation  of  pistils.     The  varieties  found  are  quite  numerous, 

and  the  most  important  are  shown  in  the  following: 

Fig.  32.  Scale  from  a  Pine  cone,  showing  the  two  winged  seeds  attached  to  its  inner 
(upper)  surface.  (From  Hough's  Elements  of  Forestry.) 

Fig.  33.  Flowers  of  the  Hornbeam,  the  two  lower  catkins  being  staminate  and  the  upper  one 
pistillate.  (From  Hough's  Elements  of  Forestry.) 

3 


18  INTRODUCTION. 

SYNOPSIS  OF  THE  PRINCIPAL  KINDS  OF  FRUITS. 

Free  Fruits  —  resulting  from  the  ripening  of  a  single  pistil,  either  simple 

or  compound. 
a.     Dry  Pericarp, 
b.  Indehiscent  and 

C.  Thin,  containing  a  single  ovule;  e.  g.  Buttercup ACHENIUM. 

An  achenium  inflated  and  bladder  like  e.  g.  Pigweed UTRICLE. 

An  achenium  with  pericarp  adherent  to  seed;  e.  g.  Wheat CARYOPSTS. 

An  achenium  with  wing-like  projections;  e.  g.  Ash  and  Elm SAMARA. 

cc.  Thick,  hard  and  furnished  with  an  involucre  or  cup;  e.  g.  Oak .NuT. 

bb.  Dehiscent  Pericarp, 

C.  Resulting  from  a  simple  ovary. 

Dehiscent  along  the  inner  or  ventral  suture;  e.  g.  Pceony FOLLICLE. 

Dehiscent  along  both  ventral  and  dorsal  sutures;  e.  g.  Pea LEGUME. 

A  Legume  dividing  transversely;  e.  g.  Desmodium LOMENT. 

CC.  Resulting  from  a  compound  ovary;  e.  g.  Iris CAPSULE.* 

Dehiscence  by  two  lateral  valves;  e.  g.  Mustard SILIQUE. 

A  broad  and  short  silique;  e.  g.  Shepherd's  Purse SILICLE  or  POUCH. 

Dehiscence  circunicissile;  e.  g.  Plantain   PIXIS. 

aa.  Fleshy  and  Indehiscent  Pericarp. 

b.  With  hardened  endocarp  —  a  stone  or  pit;  e.  g.  Cherry DRUPE. 

bb.  Without  a  hardened  endocarp. 

C.  Seeds  distributed  through  the  pulpy  mass. 

Rind  membraneous;  e.  g.  Gooseberry.    BERRY. 

Rind  firm  and  hard;  e.  g.  Gourd , PEPO. 

Rind  leathery  and  easily  separable;  e.  g.  Orange  HESPERIDIUM. 

CC.  Seeds  in  distinct  cells  with  papery  wallj;  e.  g.  Apple POME. 

add.  Fibrous  or  Fibro-fleshy  and  Indehiscent  Pericarp. 

b.  Endocarp  hardened  and  cell  two-lobed;  e.  g.  Butternut TRYMA. 

Multiple  or  Aggregate  Fruits  —  resulting  from  the  ripening  of  an  aggre- 
gation of  pistils. 

a.  Carpels  open  and  scale-like;  e.  g.  Pine CONE  or  STROBILE. 

aa.  Carpels  closed  and  variously  aggregated  as  seen  in  the  Magnolia,  Mulberry, 
Osage-orange,  etc NOT  WELL  CLASSIFIED. 

*  "Capsule"  and  "  Pod,"  in  a  broader  sense,  are  often  used  for  any  free,  dry,  dehiscent  fruit. 


THE  SEED. 


19 


FIG.  34. 


THE  SEED. 

101.  The  seed  is  the  fertilized  and  developed  ovule,  and  the  following 
terms  used  here  for  convenience  as  descriptive  of  the  parts,  the  kinds 
and  the  positions  of  the  ovule  are  also  applicable  to  the  seed,  excepting, 
perhaps,  a  few  changes  which  will  be  mentioned  later. 

102.  An  ovule  consists  of  one  or  two  coats  or  integu- 
ments:—  an  outer  coat,  the  primine,  an  inner  coat,  the 
secundine,  and  an  interior  part  or  contents,  the  nucleus. 
At  a  point  which  marks  the  apex  of  the  ovule  is  a  minute 
hole  — •  the  orifice  or  foramen  —  through  the  integuments, 
and   at   the  opposite    extremity    the   coats   are   blended 
together  and  with  the  base  of  the  nucleus;  this  is  called 
the   chalaza.     The  stalklet,  if  there  be  any,  supporting 
the  ovule  is  the  funiculus,  and  the  place  of  its  attach- 
ment with  the  ovule,  the  place  where  it  breaks  away  when 
a  seed,  is  called  the  hilum  or  scar. 

103.  As  an  ovule  develops,  if  its  axis  (an  imaginary 
line  passing  through  its  center  from  base  to  apex)  remains 
straight,  in  the  direction  of  the  original  line  of  growth, 
it  is  said  to  be  an  orthotropous  or  straight  ovule.     More 

commonly,  however,  the  ovule  turns  more  or  less  over 
upon  the  supporting  stalklet,  which  becomes  adherent 
to  its  surface,  and  that  part,  extending  from  hilum  to 
chalaza,  is  called  the  rhaphe.  It  is  found  with  the  next 
two  kinds  of  ovules.  When  the  ovule  is  turned  about 
half  over,  its  axis  being  at  right  angles  to  the  original 
line  of  growth,  it  is 
called  an  amphitropous 
or  half-inverted  ovule. 
When  it  is  turned  com- 
pletely over,  the  axis 
being  parallel  to  the 
original  line  of  growth 
and  in  the  opposite 
direction,  it  is  said  to 
be  an  anatropous  or 
inverted  ovule. 

104.  In  the  preceding  cases  the  axis  of 
the   ovule  remains   straight,  the    flexion 
taking  place  in  the  supporting  stalklet; 
but  there  is  a  form  of  ovule  where  the  axis 
itself  becomes  curved,  the  apex  and  orifice 
being  thus  brought  over  near  to  the  base 

and  chalaza.     Such  an  one  is  called  a  campylotropous  or  curved  ovule, 
and,  as  with  the  orthotropous  ovule,  has  no  rhaphe. 

105.  The  position  or  direction  of  the  ovule  in  the  cell  is  designated  by 
the  following  terms: — horizontal,  when  growing  from  the  side  of  the  cell 

Fig.  34.  Staminate  Flowers  of  the  Oak,  enlarged.     (From  Hough's  Elements  of  Forestry.) 
Fig.  35.  Pistillate  Flowers  of  the  Willow.     (From  Hough's  Elements  of  Forestry.) 
Fig.  36.  Fruit  of  the  Maple  (A pseudo-platanus)  —  a  double  samara.     (From  Hough's  Ele- 
ments of  Forestry.) 


FIG.  35. 


FIG.  36. 


20  INTRODUCTION. 

out  horizontally;  ascending,  when  growing  obliquely  upwards;  erect, 
when  growing  from  the  base  of  the  cell  directly  upwards;  pendulous 
when  growing  from  near  the  top  of  the  cell;  and  suspended,  when  hang- 
ing directly  from  the  summit  of  the  cell. 

Let  us  consider  now  more  especially  the  Seed,  as  we  find 
it  developed  from  the  fertilized  ovule.     We  will  find  that 


_  106.  The  Seed  Coats  are  commonly  two,  the  testa  and 

FIG.  37.        the   tegmen.     The   testa   is  the   outer   coat,  originally   the 
primine  of  the  ovule,  and  often  becomes  very  greatly  changed 

in  process  of  development.     It  may  be  thin  and  papery,  or  thicken  and 

become  very  hard  or  woody,  etc.,  and  be  smooth  or  variously  marked.     It 

may  send  out  membranous  projections,  to  serve  as  wings,  or  hairs  (Figs. 

37-39),  etc. —  devices  for  rendering  the 

seeds     buoyant,    that    the    wind     may 

more  widely  scatter  them,  as  they  fail 

from  the  pods  which  open  to  discharge 

them. 

107.     The  tegmen  is  the  inner  coat, 

originally  the  secundine  of   the  ovule, 

and  is  usually  thin  and  delicate,  often 

hardly  distinguishable  from  the  testa.  FIG.  38.  FIG.  40. 

108.  The  Kernel  or  Nucleus  of  the  seed  comprises 
all  interior  to  its  coats,  and  consists  of  either  embryo  alone 
or  with  an  accompanying  albumen  as  the  case  may  be. 

1 09.  The  Embryo  or  Germ  is  the  rudimentary  plantlet, 
and  consists  of  three  parts,  usually  quite  easily  distin- 
guishable.    They  are  the  cotyledons  or  seed-leaves,  the 
radicle,   which   in   germination   grows   downward   and 
forms  the  root,  and  the  plumule  which  develops  upward 
and  forms  the  stem  or  trunk.     The  cotyledons  usually 
constitute  by  far  the  greater  bulk  of  the  embryo,  and 
are  more  or  less  gorged  with  nourishment, —  prepared 
food  deposited  there  by  the  parent  for  supporting  the 
young  plantlet,  when  at  the  time  of  germination  it  needs 
it  for  assistance  in  taking  root  in  order  to  "  shift  for  itself/' 
According  as  there  are  one,  two  or  several  cotyledons, 

_  seeds  are  said  to  be  respectively  monocotyledonous,  dico- 

FicT  39***'        tyledonous  or  polycotyledonous. 

110.  The  cotyledons  as  seen  in  the  Horsechestnut, 
Pea,  etc.,  are  very  thick  and   seem  very  little   like   leaves.     Those  of 
the  Squash,  Maple,  etc.,  resemble  leaves  somewhat,  and  after  giving  up 
their  stored  food  in  germination  rise  above  ground  and  serve  as  leaves. 
In  the  seeds  of  many  classes  of  plants  the  cotyledons  contain  but  very 
little  nourishing  matter,  and  then 

Fig.  37.  Fruit  of  the  Birch  — a  samara  with  two  wings.  (From  Hough's  Elements  of 
Forestry.) 

Fig.  38.  Fruit  of  the  Elm  — a  samara  winged  all  around.  (From  Hough's  Elements  of 
Forestry. ) 

Fig.  39.  Pistillate  catkin  of  the  Poplar,  with  pods  mostly  open,  and  the  matured  seed  ready 
to  escape.  (From  Hough's  Elements  of  Forestry.) 

Fig.  40.  Seed  of  the  Cottonwood  showing  its  hairy  tuft.  (From  Hough's  Elements  of 
Forestry.) 


FIG.  41. 


Fig.  41.  Small  leaved  Basswood  ( Tilia  parviflora).  1.  A  sprig  with  blossoms  and  leaves. 
2,  3.  Blossoms  from  upper  and  under  points  of  view.  4,  5.  Longitudinal  and  transverse 
sections  of  the  pistil.  6.  Pistil,  exterior  view.  7.  Fruit.  8.  Section  of  the  same.  9.  Section 
of  the  seed.  10.  Twig  with  buds.  11.  Young  sprout,  showing  expanded  seed-leaves.  (From 
Hough's  Elements  of  Forestry.) 


22  INTRODUCTION. 

111.  The  albumen  is  a  storage,  outside  of  the  embryo,  of  food  for  the 
young  plantlet.     It  is  principally  of  a  starchy  nature  and  may  be  beside 
of  the  embryo,  but  usually  completely  envelops  it.    It  is  always  found  in 
seeds  where  the  space  and  function  are  not  taken  up  by  the  embryo  itself, 
and  its  relative  quantity  may  accordingly  be  little  or  very  great.    In  tex- 
ture it  is  extremely  various,  as  it  may  be  oily,  mucilaginous,  fleshy,  fari- 
naceous etc.     It  is  quite  horn  like  in  coffee,  where  it  constitutes  by  far 
the  greater  part  of  the  seed  —  the  kernels  of  commerce.   In  the  cocoanut 
it  is  fibrous,  hollow,  and  filled  with  "milk,"  while  the  embryo  itself  is 
very  small.    In  the  seed  of  the  Ivory  Palm  it  is  quite  like  ivory  and  con- 
stitutes the   "  vegetable  ivory "  of  commerce.     All  these  forms  of  hard 
albumen  soften  at  the  time  of  germination.     A  seed  of  the  Basswood, 
with  quite  copious  albumen  and  entirely  enveloping  the  embryo,  is  seen 
in  Fig.  41-9. 

112.  Seeds  containing  no  albumen  are  said  to  be  exalbuminous,  in  dis- 
tinction from  the  albuminous  seeds,  i.  e.,  those  containing  albumen. 

113.  An  Aril   is  an  adventitious   growth  outside  of  and  partly  or 
wholly  enveloping  the  seeds  of  certain  plants.     The  mace  of  the  nutmeg 
is  of  this  nature.     The  seed  of  the  White  Water- Lily  is  invested  in  a 
transparent  aril,  and  those  of  the  Climbing-Bittersweet  and  Burning 
Bush  in  scarlet  arils. 

THE  PHYSICAL  PROPERTIES  OF  WOODS. 

114.  These,  so  far  as  relating  to  the  woods  of  North  America  —  north 
of  Mexico  —  were  very  carefully  studied,  with  the  exception  of  a  few 
species,  in  connection  with  the  United  States  census  investigations  of 
1880.     The  special  agent  employed  for  this  purpose  was  Mr.  Stephen  P. 
Sharpies,  of  Cambridge,  Mass.,  who  conducted  elaborate  experiments  in 
their  determination,  and  the  results,  fully  tabulated  with  explanations  of 
the  methods  employed,  were  incorporated  by  Prof.  Chas.  S.  Sargent  in 
Vol.  IX  [Ninth  Census  of  the  United  States,  1880].     It  is  from  that 
report  that  we  have  taken  the  estimates  of  Specific  Gravity,  Percentage 
of  Ash,  Relative  Approximate  Fuel  Value,  Coefficient  of  Elasticity,  Modu- 
lus of  Rupture,   Resistance  to   Longitudinal   Pressure,   Resistance  to 
Indentation  and  Weight  of  a  Cubic  Foot  in  Pounds.     These,  with  the 
methods  employed,  we  will  here  briefly  explain,  quoting  largely  from  the 
report  above  referred  to.     A  given  estimate  represents  the  average  of  all 
the  results  obtained  in  that  particular  line  of  experimenting. 

115.  The  Specific  Gravity.  At  least  two  determinations  were  made 
for  each  species  studied,  and,  in  case  of  woods  of  commercial  importance, 
specimens  were  taken  from  many  trees  growing  in  widely  different  parts 
of  the  country  and  under  different  conditions  of  soil  and  climate.  .  The 
specimens  used  were  made  100  millimeters  long  and  about  35  millimeters 
square,  and  were  dried  at  100°  centigrade  until  they  ceased  to  lose  in 
weight.     The  specific  gravity  was  then  obtained  by  measurement  with 
micrometer  calipers  and  calculation  from  the  weights  of  the  blocks.     Of 
the  four  hundred  and  twenty-nine  species  experimented  upon,  the  range 
of  variation  was  found  to  be  from  0.2616  (in  Ficus  aurea,  the  small- 
fruited  Fig),  to  1.3020  (in  Condalia  ferrea,  the  Black  Iron-wood). 


THE  PHYSICAL  PIIOPERTIES  OF  WOODS.  23 

116.  Percentage   of  Ash.  Two  determinations  of  ash  were  made 
from  each  specimen  studied  by  burning  small,  dried  blocks  in  a  muffle 
furnace  at  a  low  temperature.     Of  the  four  hundred  and  two  species 
studied,  the  range  of  variation  was  found  to  be  from  0.08  (in  Libocedrus 
decurrensj  the  Incense  Cedar,  and  Pseudotsuya  Douylasii,  the  Red  Fir,) 
to  9.28  (in  the  Yucca  elata,  a  kind  of  Spanish  Bayonet). 

117.  Relative    Approximate    Fuel    Value.    The    relative    fuel 
values  were  obtained  by  deducting  the  percentage  of  ash  from  the  specific 
gravity  and  are  based  on  the  hypothesis  that  the  real  value  of  the  com- 
bustible material  in  all  woods  is  the  same.     It  appears  from  Mr.  Sharpies' 
experiments  that  resinous  woods  give  upwards  of  12  per  cent  more  heat 
from  equal  weights  burned  than  non-resinous  woods.     In  ordinary  prac- 
tice, however,  less  heat  is  derived,  because  so  much  more  carbon  escapes 
unconsumed  in  the  form  of  smoke  than  with  the  non-resinous  woods.  But, 
making  the  distinction  of  resinous  and  non-resinous  woods,  the  amount  of 
heat  derived  is  very  nearly  in  direct  proportion  to  the  specific  gravity,  i.  e., 
the  heavier  the  wood  the  greater  the  amount  of  heat  obtained,  supposing, 
of  course,  the  woods  to  be  equally  seasoned.     There  is  always  more  or 
less  heat  lost  in  combustion,  besides  that  resulting  from  the  escape  of 
the  carbon  and  hydrogen  of  the  smoke.     A  certain  amount  is  required 
to  evaporate  the  water  which  is  always  present  —  ordinarily  in  the  pro- 
portion of  25  per  cent  or  more  —  in  air-dried  wood.     These  items  of  loss 
were  eliminated  in  Mr.  S/s  experiments  so  that  his  results  show  only 
approximately  the  amount  of  heat  derived  in  ordinary  practice.     The 
amount  of  ash  present  in  a  wood  lessens  proportionally  the  amount  of 
derived  heat,  but  this  item  is  usually  very  slight. 

The  unit  of  fuel  value  would  be  represented  by  a  wood  free  from  ash 
(which  is  not  found  in  reality)  and  a  specific  gravity  of  1.  Of  the  four 
hundred  and  thirty  species  experimented  upon,  there  was  found  a  varia- 
tion from  0.2480  (in  Yucca  baccata,  the  Spanish  Bayonet)  to  1.1938  (in 
Condalia  ferrea,  the  Black  Iron-wood).  The  relative  fuel  value  of  any 
particular  wood  multiplied  by  4000  would  give  very  nearly  the  amount 
of  heat  obtained  by  burning  a  cubic  decimeter  of  that  wood  —  a  unit  of 
heat  being  the  amount  required  to  raise  a  kilogram  of  water  one  degree 
centigrade  ;  and  4000  units  being  the  amount  of  heat  produced  by  burn- 
ing a  kilogram  of  dry  non-resinous  wood.  With  resinous  woods  the 
amount  lost  in  the  smoke  — 12  per  cent  or  more  —  must  be  considered. 

118.  The   Elasticity   of  Woods  was  experimented  upon  by  Mr. 
Sharpies,  and  this  he  represents  by  designating  the  Coefficient  of  Elas- 
ticity, which  is  the  ratio  of  the  force  required  in  distorting  the  wood  to 
the  amount  of  that  distortion,  which  must  not  be  beyond  the  elastic 
limit.     By  distortion  is  meant  either  extension  or  compression,  which  are 
both  brought  into  play  in  the  process  of  bending.     The  coefficient  of 
elasticity,  as  determined  by  Mr.  S.,  represents  the  weight  in  kilograms 
which  would  be  sufficient  to  elongate  a  stick  one  centimeter  square  to 
double  its  original  length,  were  that  possible,  which,  of  course,  is  not. 
the  case,  as  the  fiber  would  part  long  before  that  limit  is  reached,  but  it 
is  a  convenient  method  of  comparison.     The  experiments  on  three  hun- 
dred and  ten  species  of  our  native  timbers  shows  a  range  in  coefficient 


24  INTRODUCTION. 

of    elasticity  from  25699  (in  Ficus  aurea,  the  Small-fruited    Fig,)  to 
165810  (in  Larix  occidentals,  the  Western  Tamarack). 

119.  The  Modulus  of  Rupture,  as  denned  by  Prof.  Thurston,*  is 
"  the  quantity  which  represents  the  stress  upon  a  unit  of  area  of  cross- 
section  of  the  fiber  farthest  from  the  neutral  axis  [i.  e.,  the  line  of  par- 
ticles not  subjected  to  either  tensile  or  compressive  stress]  on  the  side 
which  gives  way,  and  at  the  instant  of  breaking  under  transverse  stress/' 
This  is  expressed  in  the  results  of  Mr.  Sharpies'  experiments  in  kilo- 
grams, the  unit  of  area  of  cross-section  being  a  square  centimeter.     In 
the  three  hundred  and  ten  species  experimented   upon,  he  found  the 
range  to  be  from  148  (in  Bursera  gummifera,  the  Gumbo  Limbo,)  to 
1394  (in  Carya  myristicaeformis,  the  Nutmeg  Hickory). 

120.  Resistance  to  Longitudinal  Pressure  is  represented  by  the 
number  of  kilograms  required  to  crush  the  fibers  of  a  stick  one  centi- 
meter square  by  longitudinal  pressure.     It  is  the  ultimate  weight  which 
a  stick  of  that  size  will  support,  and  in  the  three  hundred  and  seventeen 
species  experimented  upon,  the  range  of  variation  was  found  to  be  from 
155  (in  Bursera  gummifera,  the  Gumbo  Limbo,)  to  887  (in  Eugenia  buxi- 
folia,  the  Spanish  Stopper). 

121.  Resistance   to   Indentation   is  expressed   in  the  number  of 
kilograms  required  to  sink  a  punch  one  centimeter  square  to  the  depth 
of  1.27  millimeters  perpendicularly  to  the  fibers  of  the  wood,  i.  e.,  into 
the  side  of  the  grain.     Three  hundred  and  fourteen  species  were  tested., 
and  in  them  the  range  of  variation  was  found  to  be  from  47  (in  Bursera 
gummifera,  the  Gumbo  Limbo,)  to  793  (in  Guaiacum  sanctum,  the  Lig- 
numvitae). 

122.  The  word  "  compact"  as  applied  to  timbers  by  Prof.  Sargent  in  the 
report  above  referred  to,  designates  a  non-liability  to  check  in  seasoning. 
It  is  mainly  upon  the  authority  of  that  report  that  the  term  is  used  in 
this  work. 


*  The  Materials  of  Engineering.    By  Robert  H.  Thurston.     Part  I,  p.  94. 


12 


FIG.  43. 


Fig.  42.  fc>cotch  Pine  (Pinus  sylvestris).  1.  A  twig  bearing  pistillate  flowers  in  u  deflected 
spike  —  cone.  2.  A  twig  bearing  statninate  flowers,  in  short  oval  catkins,  clustered  about  the 
tip.  3.  Cone  further  advanced  and  with  scales  closed.  4.  Cone  matured  and  with  scales 
open.  5.  Cone  at  the  period  of  blossoming,  as  in  1,  but  enlarged.  6,  7.  Bract  and  scale  from 
same,  showing  outer  face  and  side.  8.  hame,  showing  inner  face,  with  its  two  attached 
ovules.  9.  A  scale  from  matured  cone,  inner  face,  showing  attached  sesds.  10.  Same,  outer 
face,  showing  its  thickened  nature.  11,  12.  Seed  with  its  wing,  natural  size  and  enlarged.  13. 
Stammate  catkin,  somewhat  enlarged.  14,  15.  Isolated  stamens  from  same,  enlarged.  16,  17, 
Pollen  grains  enlarged.  18.  A  young  shoot,  showing  its  whorl  of  seed  leaves.  19.  Fascicle  of 
two  leaves.  20.  Transverse  section  of  a  pair  of  leaves,  showing  cellular  structure  and  resini- 
ferous  canals.  (From  Hough's  Elements  of  Forestry.) 


GLOSSARY. 

GLOSSARY 

And  Index  to  the  Structural  Botany  Treated  in  the  Foregoing  Pages. 


N.  B. —  The  numbers  refer  to  paragraphs. 


Abortion,  the  imperfect  or  non-develop- 
ment of  a  part. 

Achenium,  100. 

Acuminate,  35. 

Acute,  35. 

Adherent,  united  or  growing  to,  35. 

Adnate,  closely  united  or  growing  to 
(literally  "born  with"),  72,  88. 

Aestivation,  96. 

Aggregate  Fruits,  100. 

Albumen  (of  the  seed),  111. 

Albuminous,  furnished  with  albumen, 
112. 

Alternate  as  applied  to  floral  organs,  when 
those  of  one  set  stand  at  the  intervals 
between  those  of  the  next  set,  as  applied 
to  leaves,  43. 

Ament,  a  catkin,  55. 

Amentaceous,  furnished  with  or  resem- 
bling catkins. 

Amphitropous  (ovule  or  seed),  103. 

Anatropous  (ovule  or  seed),  103. 

Andrcecium,  the  stamens,  68. 

Angiosperm,  83. 

Anther,  68. 

Apetalous,  without  petals,  65. 

Aril,  113. 

Aristate,  35. 

Articulated,  jointed  with  by  a  more  or  less 
easily  separable  joint. 

Ash,  Percentage  of  in  woods,  116. 

Assimilation,  17. 

Awl-shaped,  sharp  pointed  from  a  broad 
base. 

Awn,  a  bristle  as  the  beard  of  Barley,  35. 

Awned,  furnished  with  an  awn  or  awns. 

Axil,  the  upper  angle  between  the  stem 
of  a  leaf  and  the  branch  or  stalk  which 
bears  it. 

Axillary,  growing  from  the  axil,  49. 

Saccate  (L.  bacca,  a  berry),  berry-like 
with  fleshy  pulp. 

Berry,  100. 

Bifoliate,  with  two  leaflets,  42. 

Bipinnate,  twice  pinnately  compound,  42. 

Bract,  altered,  scale-like  leaf  of  an  inflor- 
escence, 49. 

Bractlet,   49. 


Caducous,  falling  very  early  —  earlier 
than  deciduous. 

C'lli/x,  64. 

Calyx-tube,  a  tube  formed  by  the  union  of 
the  sepals,  64. 

Campylotropous  (ovule  or  seed),  104. 

Capitate,  forming  a  head;  said  of  the 
stigma  when  enlarged  like  the  head  on 
a  pin,  or  of  a  flower-cluster  when  form- 
ing a  dense  head. 

Capsule,  100. 

Carpel,  76. 

Carpellary,  of  or  belonging  to  a  carpel. 

Caryopsis,  100. 

Catkin,  55. 

Centimeter  (cm.},  a  one-hundredth  part 
of  a  meter,  ==.3937  inch. 

Ciiiate  (L.  cilium,  an  eyelash),  fringed 
with  small  hairs  like  miniature  eye- 
lashes. 

Circumcissile,  99. 

Claw,  used  of  some  petals,  etc. ,  to  desig- 
nate a  narrow  and  stalk-like  base. 

Cleft,  37. 

Coefficient  of  Elasticity  in  woods,  118. 

Compact,  as  applied  to  timbers,  a  non- 
liability to  check  in  drying,  122. 

Complete  flower,  92. 

Compound  pistil,  79. 
leaves,  38. 
umbel,  54. 

Cone,  84,  100. 

Connate  (L.  con,  with,  and  natus,  born), 
united  or  developed  with. 

Connective,  72. 

Cordate,  heart-shaped,  35. 

Coriaceous,  leather-like  in  texture. 

Corolla,  65. 

Corymb,  53. 

Cotyledon,  109. 

Crenate,  37. 

Cuneate,  or  Cuneiform,  34. 

Cuspidate,  35. 

Cyme,  58. 

Deciduous,  that  falls  away;  said  of  leaves 

which  fall  in  autumn. 
Declined,  turning  to  one  side  or  downward. 
Decompound,  more  than  once  compound, 41. 


GLOSSARY. 


Decurrent  (L.  decurro,  to  run  down),  said 
of  leaves  when  the  margins  of  the  leaf 
continue  down  along  the  stem  below 
the  base  of  midrib. 

Dehi&cent,.sa,id  of  anthers  or  pods,  which 
open  to  discharge  their  contents,  99. 

Dentate,  with  toothed  margin,  87. 

Denticulate,  diminutive  of  dentate,  *.  e., 
dentate  with  very  small  teeth. 

Deltoid,  34. 

Diadelphous,  71. 

Diclinous,  91. 

Dicotyledonous,  with  two  cotyledons,  109. 

Digitate,  30,  40. 

Dioecious,  91. 

Dissepiments,  81. 

Distinct,  not  united  with  each  other,  71, 
93. 

Divaricate,  diverging  in  opposite  direc- 
tions. 

Divided,  as  applied  to  leaves,  37. 

Drupe,  a  fleshy  fruit  with  a  pit,  as  in  the 
Peach  and  Cherry,  100. 

Drupaceous,  of  the  nature  of  a  drupe. 

Duct,  11. 

Elasticity  of  tyoods,  118. 

Elliptical  (leaf),  34. 

Emarginaie,  notched  at  the  apex,  35. 

Embryo,  109. 

Endocarp,  98. 

Endogen  or  Endogenous,  16. 

Entire  (leaf  margin),  37. 

Epicarp,  98. 

Epigynous,  borne  upon  the  ovary,  70. 

Epipetalous,  borne  upon  the  petals,  70. 

Eroded,  ragged  as  though  gnawed. 

Exalbuminous,  without  albumen,  112. 

Exocarp,  98. 

Exogen  or  Exogenous,  14. 

Exserted,  projecting  out,  as  bracts  of  a 
cone  projecting  beyond  the  scales. 

Extrorse,  said  of  anthers  which  open  out- 
ward, 73. 

Exstipulate,  without  stipules,  22. 

Fascicle,  a  bundle  or  cluster,  44,  59. 

Fasciculate,  arranged  in  fascicles. 

Feather-veined,  29. 

Fertile  (flowers),  those  bearing  the  ovules, 
90. 

Fibro-vascular,  16. 

Filament,  the  stalk  of  the  stamen,  68. 

Filamentous  or  Filiform,  threadlike. 

Fleshy  (fruits),  100. 

Floral  Envelopes,  67. 

Flower,  The,  62. 

Numerical  Plan  of  the,  95. 
Organs  of  the,  62. 

Foliaceous,  leaf -like  in  structure  or  func- 
tions. 

Follicle,  a  kind  of  pod,  100. 

Free,  applied  to  parts  of  the  flower,  87. 


Free,  applied  to  fruits,  100. 

Fruit,  97,  100. 

Fuel  Value  of  Woods,  117. 

Germ,  109. 

Gibbous,  more  tumid  in  one  place  than 
another. 

Glabrous,  smooth,  i.  e.,  without  hairs  or 
roughness  of  any  kind. 

Glaucous,  sea-green  and  usually  furnished 
with  a  whitish  bloom,  as  seen  on  the 
cabbage  leaf. 

Globose,  nearly  spherical  in  form. 

Glomarule,  60. 

Gymnosperm,  85. 

Gymncscium,  the  pistil  or  pistils  col- 
lectively, 74. 

Head  (of  inflorescence),  56. 

Heari-wood,  the  inner,  firmer  and  more 

durable  wood  of  exogenous  trunks.     It 

is    usually   of    darker   color   than   the 

newer  sap-wood. 
Hesperidium,  100. 
Hilum,  the  scar  on  a  seed  where  the 

stalklet  was  attached,  102. 
Hypogenom,  growing  from  beneath   the 

ovary,  70. 

Imbricated,  overlapping  each  other  like 
shingles  on  a  roof. 

Imperfect  (flowers),  90. 

Indsed,  37. 

Inequilateral  (leaves),  36. 

Inferior  (ovary,  etc  ),  88. 

Inflorescence,  and  kinds  of,  47-57. 

Incomplete  (flowers),  92. 

Indehiscent,  that  does  not  open  spon- 
taneously, 99. 

Innate,  72. 

Introrse,  73. 

Involucel,  54. 

Involucellate,  furnished  with  an  involucel. 

Involucre,  54,  56. 

Involucrate,  furnished  with  an  involucre. 

Involute,  the  sides  rolled  in  in  vernation. 

Irregular  (flowers),  93. 

Jagged,  37. 

Kernel  (of  the  seed\  108. 

Key  fruit,  a  winged  fruit,  a  samara. 

Kilogram  or  Kilo,  a  metric  measure  of 
weight;=2  Ibs.,  3  oz.,  4.65  dr.  avoirdu- 
pois. It  is  the  weight  of  a  cubic  deci- 
meter of  distilled  water  at  its  greatest 
density. 

Lacerate,  torn,   as   it  were;   with   deep, 

irregular  incisions. 

Laciniate,  cut  into  long,  irregular  teeth. 
Lanceolate,  34. 
Leaf,  The,  17. 


28 


GLOSSARY. 


Leaf,  Arrangement  of,  on  the  stem,  43. 

Compound,  38. 

Forms  of,  38. 

Forms  of  Base  and  Apex  of,  35. 

Forms  of  Margin  of,  37. 

Parts  of  the,  21. 

Simple,  38. 
Leaflet,  38. 
Legume,  100. 
Limb,  the  lamina  or  blade;  the  border  of 

a  calyx -tube. 
Linear,  34. 
Lobe,  37. 
Loculicidal,  99. 
Lament,  100. 

Medullary  ray,  15. 

Meter  (abbreviation,  w.),  the  metric  unit 
of  length,=  39.37  inches. 

Midrib,  26. 

Millimeter  (abbreviation,  mm.},  a  thou- 
sandth part  of  a  meter,=.03937  inch. 

Modulus  of  Rupture  in  woods,  119. 

Monadelphous,  71. 

Monocotyledonous,  109. 

Monoecious,  91. 

Monopetalous,  65. 

Mucronate,  35. 

Multiple  Fruits,  100. 

Naked  (Flowers),  67. 
Needle-shaped  (leaves),  44. 
Netted-veined,  28. 
Neutral  (flowers),  67. 
Node,  43. 
Nut,  100. 

Oblong,  34. 

Obcordate,  35. 

Oblanceolate,  34. 

Oblique  (leaves),  36. 

Obovate,  34. 

Obtuse,  35. 

Opposite  (leaves),  43. 

Orbicular,  34. 

Organs  of  the  Flower,  Essential,  86. 

Orthotropous,  103. 

Osmosis,  10. 

Oml,  34. 

Ovate,  34. 

Ovary,  75. 

Ovoid,  egg-shaped,  used  of  solid  forms, 

not  of  leaves,  etc. 
Ovule,  75. 

Positions  in  ovary,  105. 

Structure,  102. 

Palmate,  30,  40. 

Panicle,  52. 

Paniculate,  arranged  in  panicles. 

Parallel -veined  (leaves),  31. 

Parted  (leaves),  37. 

Pedicel,  48. 


Peduncle,  48. 

Persistent,  remaining  on  for  a  long  time, 

as  evergreen   leaves;  or  sepals,  which 

remain  until  the  maturity  of  fruit. 
Pepo,  100. 
Perfect  (flowers),  90. 
Perianth,  66. 
Pericarp,  98. 
Perigynous,  70. 
Petal,  65. 

Petiolate,  furnished  with  a  petiole. 
Petiole,  21. 
Petiolule,  38. 
Phyllotaxy,  43. 

Physical  Properties  of  Woods,  114. 
Pinnate,  29,  39. 
Pinnatifid,  pinnately  cleft. 
Pistil,  74. 

Closed,  83. 
Open,  84. 

Pistillate  (flowers),  90 
Pixis,  100. 
Placenta,  78. 
Plaited  or  plicate,  folded  lengthwise,  used 

of  certain  leaves  in  the  bud,  etc. 
Plumule,  109. 
Pod,  100. 
Pollen,  69. 
Polyadelphous,  71. 
Polyandrous,  having  many  stamens 
Polycotyledonous,  109. 
Polygamous,  91. 
Polypetalous,  65. 
Pome,  100. 
Primine,  102. 
Pubescent,   furnished    with   a  growth   of 

short,  soft  downy  hairs. 

Raceme,  52. 

Rachis,  38,  55. 

Radial  (section),  15. 

Radiate-veined,  30. 

Radicle,  109. 

Receptacle,  56,  63. 

Regular  (flower),  93. 

Repand,  37. 

Resistance  to  Longitudinal   Pressure  in 

Woods,  120. 

Resistance  to  Indentation  in  Woods,  121. 
Reticulated,  28. 
Retuse,  35. 

Revolute,  rolled  backward. 
Rotund,  34. 
Rugose,  wrinkled,  puckered. 

Samara,  100. 

Sap-wood,  the  newer,  outside  wood  of 
exogenous  trunks,  usually  of  lighter 
color  than  the  heart  wood  and  not  so 
durable  on  exposure. 

Scar  (of  the  seed),  102. 

Scarious,  thin,  membranous  and  dry. 

Secundine,  102. 


GLOSSARY. 


29 


Seed,  The,  101. 
Coats,  106. 

Sepal,  64. 

Septicidal,  99. 

Serrate,  37. 

Serrulate,  serrate  with  very  fine  teeth. 

Sessile,  23,  48,  75. 

Silver-grain,  15. 

Silicli,  100. 

Silique,  100. 

/Sfowpfe  leaf,  38,—  pistil,  77. 

Sinuate,  37. 

Sinus,  37. 

Solitary  (flowers),  48,  57. 

Spadix,  55. 

Spathe,  55. 

Spatulate,  34. 

Gravity  of  Woods,  115. 
,  55. 
The,  7. 

Stamens,  68. 

Insertion  of  the,  70. 
CTntott.  of  the,  71. 

Staminate  (flower),  90. 

afenfe  (flower),  90. 

Stipulate,  furnished  with  stipules. 

Striated,  marked  with  small  longitudinal 
grooves. 

Strobile,  a  cone,  100. 

Stigma,  Stigmatic,  75. 

Stipule,  21. 

Style,  75. 

Sub-(&  prefix),  about  or  nearly,  e.  g. ,  sub- 
spherical  =  nearly  spherical. 

Succulent,  juicy,  pulpy. 

Superior  (ovary,  etc.),  88. 

Symmetrical  (flower),  94. 

Syngenesious,  71. 


Tangential  (section),  15. 

Taper -pointed,  35. 

Tawny,   a    yellowish-brown    or    fulvous 

color. 

Ternate,  42. 
Thyrsus,  52. 
Tomentose,  clothed  with  dense  wooly 

hairs. 

Toothed  (leaf-margin),  37. 
Transverse  (section),  15. 
Trifoliate,  42. 
Tripinnate,  42 

Truncate,  35.  • 

Tryma,  100. 
Tumid,  swollen  or  inflated. 

Umbel,  54. 

Umbellet,  54. 

Undulate,  37. 

Unsymmetrical  (flower),  a  flower  whose 

various  organs  do  not  contain  the  same 

number  in  each  set. 
Utricle,  100. 

Valvate,  applied  to  sepals,  etc.,  which 
close  together  like  valves,  the  margins 
simply  in  close  contact,  without  over- 
lapping or  folding  in. 

Veins  (of  the  leaf),  26. 

Venation,  27,  46. 

Vernation,  the  arrangement  of  the  leaves 
in  the  bud,  46. 

Versatile  (anther),  72. 

Villous,  furnished  with  long  soft  hairs. 

Wavy  (leaf -margin),  37. 

Whorl,  43. 

Wood,  Structure  of,  8. 


30  KEY,  BASED  UPON  FLOWERS. 

A  KEY,  BASED  MAINLY  DPON  THE  FLOWERS, 

Designed  as  an  Aid  in  the  Identification  of  the  Species  represented  in  Part  I. 

a.  Angiospermae  —  seeds  in  a  closed  ovary. 
b.  Polypetalous —  petals  present  and  distinct. 

C.  Stamens  numerous,  more  than  10,  and  calyx  inferior — wholly  free  from  the 

pistil  or  pistils. 
d.  Pistils  numerous  and  cohering  in  a  cone-like  mass.     (Mognoliacice.} 

€.  Anthers  opening  inward;  leaves  folded  lengthwise  in  the  bud  (Magnolia), 
pointed  at  both  ends,  oval,  thin  and  green  above  and  below. 

1.    M.  ACUMINATA. 

ee.  Anthers  opening  outward  and  leaves  folded  crosswise  in  the  bud. 

2.    LlRIODENDRON  TULIPIFERA. 

dd.  Pistil  solitary  but  compound,  as  shown  by  styles  and  ovary-cells;  calyx 
valvate  in  the  bud,  deciduous  (Tiliacece);  stamens  somewhat 
polydelphous  (Tilia),  and  with  5  petal -like  scales  opposite  the 

petals 3.  T.  AMERICANA. 

CC.  Stamens  few,  not  more  than  10,  alternate  with  the  petals  when  of  the  same 

number. 

d.  Calyx  inferior  —  free  from  the  ovary. 

e.  Ovaries  2-5,  separate;  stamens  distinct  and  inserted  on  the  receptacle; 
trees  with  piunately  compound  and  uniformly  opaque  leaves. 

4.    AlLANTHUS  GLANDULOSUS. 

ee.  Ovary  single,  but  compound  as  shown  by  the  cells,  styles  or  stigmas. 
/.  One-celled  and  one-seeded;   styles  or  stigmas  three;   shrubs  or  trees 
with  regular  flowers  (Anacardiacece);  leaves  compound  with  11- 
31  oblong  lanceolate  acuminate  leaflets;  common  petiole  densely 
villous  and  not  winged;  flowers  in  terminal  thyrses. 

5.    RHUS  TYPHINA. 

ff.  Three-celled  with  two  ovules  in  each;  style  single;  flowers  irregular; 
stamens  6-8  (Aescidus);  fruit  covered  with  prickles,  leaves  pal- 
mately  compound  with  7  obovate  leaflets.  .6.  A.  HIPPOCASTANUM. 
dd.  Calyx  superior  —  adnate  to  the  ovary;  flowers  arranged  in  umbels; 
stamens  5;  styles  5;  fruit  drupe-like  with  5  cells  each  with  a 
single  ovule  (Aralia);  arborescent  and  armed  with  prickles. 

8.  A.  SPINOSA. 

bb.  Apetalous  —  without  petals. 
c.  Flowers  not  in  catkins;  pistil  one,  simple  or  compound,  and  the  cells  of  ovary 

containing  1-2  seeds  each. 

d.  Ovary  inferior — adnate  its  whole  length  to  the  calyx -tube  —  1-celled  and 
1-seeded;  style  1  stigmatic  down  the  side  (Nyssa);  fertile  pedun- 
cles bearing  each  two  or  more  flowers 9.  N.  MULTIFLORA. 

dd.  Ovary  superior, —  free  from  the  calyx. 

e.  Stipules  sheathing    the   stem;    trees    with    naked    monoecious    flowers 

arranged  in  heads 13.  PLATANUS  OCCIDENTALS. 

ee.  Stipules  not  sheathing  the  stem,  or  none. 
/'.  Ovules,  a  pair  in  each  cell  of  the  ovary,  which  becomes  in 

g.  Fruit,  a  double  samara;  leaves  simple  and  palmately-veined  (Acer); 
flowers  appearing  with  the  leaves  in  pendulous  corymbs. 

7.    A.  SACCHARINUM. 

gg.  Fruit,  a  1-celled  and  1-seeded  samara  (Fmxinus);  flowers  dioecious; 
calyx  persistent  at  the  terete  base  of  the  samara, 

10.  F.  AMERICANA. 
ff.  Ovules  single  in  each  of  the  one  or  two  cells  of  the  ovary;  stigmas  two 

(Ulmacew). 

g.  Fruit,  a  1  celled  samara  winged  all  round  (Ulmus),  which  is  without 
a  ciliate  fringe,  and  nearly  or  quite  sessile;  leaves  rough  above, 


KEY,  BASED  UPON  FLOWERS.  31 

oblong,   ovate,    acuminate  and   not  very   unequal   at   the  base; 

anthers  extrorse. . 11.  U.  FULVA. 

gg.  Fruit  a  drupe;  leaves  long  taper-pointed;  anthers  introrse. 

12.  CELTIS  OCCIDENTALIS. 

CC.  Flowers  diclinous,  and  one  or  both  sorts  in  catkins. 
d.   Only  one  sort  (the  staminate  flowers),  in  catkins. 

e.  Fertile  flowers,  single  or  clustered,  and  fruit  naked;  leaves  pinnately 
compound  (Juglandacece);  calyx  and  corolla  both  present  in  the 
fertile  flowers  and  4  parted;  fruit  a  try  ma  (Juglans),  which  is 

ovate-oblong  and  viscid-hairy 14.  J.  CINEREA. 

ee.  Fertile  flowers  1-3  together,  invested  wholly  or  partly  with  a  many- 
scaled  involucre;  leaves  simple. 

f.  Involucre  valveless,  cup-like  and  only  partly  inclosing  the  one  nut,  i.  e., 
acorn  (Quercus),  leaves  smooth,  thin,  lobed  with  bristle-pointed 
lobes;  acorns  maturing  the  second  year,  and  with  involucral  cup 
very  shallow  and  composed  of  fine,  closely  appressed  scales. 

15.  Q.  RUBRA. 
ff.  Involucre  4-valved  and  inclosing  two  three-cornered  nuts. 

16.  FAGUS  FERRUGINEA. 
dd.  Both  staminate  and  pistilate  flowers  in  catkins. 

e.  Ovary  1-celled  and  many-seeded;  the  seeds  at  maturity  furnished  with  a 
hairy  tuft  (Salicacece);  bracts  of  catkins  lacerately  fringed,  calyx 
a  disk-like  cup;  stamens  8-30;  leaves  broad  (Populus);  branchlets 
terete;  leaves  ovate-orbicular,  acute  and  with  large  irregular 

teeth 18.  P.  GRANDIDENTATA. 

ee.  Ovary  1-2-celled  with  a  single  ovule  in  each  cell;  calyx  scale-like  or 
none;  stigmas  2,  filamentous;  fertile  flowers  arranged  2  or  3 
under  each  scale  of  the  cone-like  catkin  (Betula);  bark  of  trunk 
yellowish  or  grayish,  peeling  off  in  thin  strips;  fertile  catkins 

short,  erect 17.  B.  LUTEA. 

aa.  Gymnospermae  —  seeds  naked,  borne  superficially  on  carpellary  scales.     Cone- 
bearing  (Coniferce). 
b.  Scales  of  cone  many,  each  in  the  axil  of  a  bract  and  bearing  2  inverted  ovules; 

seeds  winged. 

C.  Leaves  evergreen,  fascicled;  cones  maturing  the  second  year  (Pinus),  about 
half  as  long  as  the  leaves,  and  with  scales  thickened  at  the  apex 

but  unarmed;  leaves  arranged  in  twos 19.  P.  RESINOSA. 

CC.  Leaves  evergreen,  scattered  (not  fascicled);  cones  with  thin  scales,  maturing 

the  first  year  (Abies}. 
d.  Cones  erect,  cylindrical,  large  3-4  in.,  and  with  conspicuous  bracts;  leaves 

flat,  linear 22.  A.  BALSAMEA. 

dd.  Cones  pendent  and  bracts  inconspicuous. 

e.  Small,  8  lines  or  less,  scales  entire  at  tip;  leaves  linear. 

21.  A.  CANADENSIS. 

ee.  Larger,  1-1  \  in.,  scales  eroded  at  tip;  leaves  4-angled 20.  A.  NIGRA. 

ccc.  Leaves  deciduous,  soft,  needle-shaped  and  in  fascicles  of  many  each;  cones 
about  8  lines  in  length,  scales  thin  (Larix)  and  with  inflected 

margins 23.  L.  AMERICANA. 

bb.  Scales  of  cone  few,  without  bracts  and  each  bearing  2-8  erect  ovules. 

C.  Flowers  monoecious;  scales  of  the  oblong  cone  dry  and  divergent  at  maturity; 

leaves  evergreen THUJA  OCCIDENTALS. 

CC.  Flowers  dioscious;  scales  fleshy  and  consolidated,  making  a  small,  dark  blue, 
berry-like  fruit;  leaves  scale-like  and  imbricated  in  4  rows. 

25.    JUNIPERUS  VlRGINIANA. 


32  KEY,  BASED  UPON  LEAVES. 


A  KEY,  BASED  UPON  THE  LEAVES, 

Designed  as  an  Aid  in  Identifying  the  Species  of  this  Series  when  out  of  Season 
for  Procuring  the  Flowers. 


N.  B.  —  In  this  Key  no  pretension  is  made  to  exclude  species  not  of  this  series,  and  hence 
it  is  necessary  in  all  cases  to  confirm  identification,  by  a  careful  comparison  with  the  more 
extensive  description  given  of  the  species  in  its  proper  place. 

a.  Deciduous  Leaves  —  falling  in  autumn. 
b.  Simple  Leaves. 

c.  Laminate  —  with  well  marked  blade  and  petiole. 
d.  Main  rib  single  —  piunately  veined. 
e.  Entire  or  nearly  so,  pointed  at  both  ends  and  alternate. 

/.  Large,  5-10  in.  long  and  tliinuish 1.  MAGNOLIA  ACUMINATA. 

ff.  Small,  2-5  in.  long,  of  thicker  and  firmer  texture. 

9.  NYSSA  MTJLTIFLORA. 
ee.  Serrate  or  dentate. 
/.  Inequilateral  and  cordate  or  truncate  at  base. 

g.  Ovate-orbicular,  large,  4-5  in.  or  more  in  length. 

3.  TILTA  AMERICANA. 

gg.  Ovate,  long,  taper-pointed  from  a  broad  base. 

12.  CELT-IS  OCCTDENTALIS. 

gg<J.  Ovate-oblong,  very  rough,  especially  above,  rugose. 

11.  ULMUS  pn.v  \ 

ff.  Equilateral  and  obtuse,  rounded  or  only  slightly  cordate  at  base,  thin 
and  straight-veined. 

g.  Ovate-oblong,  teeth  remote,  one  at  the  end  of  each  vein,  ciliate  and 
covered  with  silky  white  hairs 16.  FAGUS  FERRUGTNEA. 

gg.  Ovate,  doubly-serrate,  petioles  downy  and  of  aromatic  flavor. 

17.  BETULA  LUTEA. 

f/f/f/.  Orbicular-ovate,  with  large,  irregular  teeth  and  long  petiole. 

18.    POPULUS   GRANDIDENTATA. 

eee.  Pinnatifid  or  lobed. 
/.  Oval,  moderately  pinnatifid,  lobes  bristle-pointed.    15.  QUERCUS  RUBRA. 

//.  Broad,  truncate  at  both  base  and  apex,  and  with  two  spreading  lobes 
on  each  side..  .  2.  LIRIODENDRON  TULIPIFERA. 


KEY,  BASED  UPON  LEAVES.  33 

dd.  Main  ribs  several  —  palmately- veined. 

e.  Ribs  three  at  first,  but  soon  five  by  branching;  leaves  alternate,  tomen- 
tose  while  young;  base  of  petiole  concave  and  fitting  over  the 
axillary  bud 13.  PLATANUS  OCCIDENTALS. 

ee.  Ribs  5-7,  from  commencement ;  leaves  opposite,  smooth ,  base  of  petiole  sub- 
tending (not  covering)  the  axillary  bud . .  7.  ACER  SACCHARINUM. 

CC.  Needle-shaped  —  without  distinction  of  blade  and  petiole, —  short,  about  1 
in.  in  length,  soft  and  in  fascicles  of  many  each. 

23.  LARIX  AMERICANA. 

bb.  Compound  Leaves. 

c.  Palmate,  with  7  obovate,  serrate  leaflets 6.  AESCTLUS  HIPPOCASTANUM. 

CC.  Pinnate  and  with  an  odd  terminal  leaflet. 
d.  Glabrous  and  petiolate. 

e.  Leaflets  numerous,  21-41,  each  with  one  or  two  pairs  of  glandular  teeth 
at  its  base 4.  AILANTHUS  GLANDULOSUS. 

ee.  Leaflets  7-9,    ovate  or  lance-oblong,  entire  or  very  obscurely  serrate. 

glaucous  beneath 10.  FRAXINUS  AMERICANA. 

« 
dd.  Pubescent,  especially  along  the  petioles  and  rachis;  leaflets  sessile. 

e.  Leaflets  ovate -lanceolate,  finely  serrate;  pubescence  of  short,  rust-colored, 
clammy  hairs 14.  JUGLANS  CINEREA. 

ee.  Leaflets  lanceolate-oblong,  coarsely  serrate;  pubescence  of  copious, 
longer  and  whiter  hairs 5.  RHUS  TYPHINA. 

bbb.  Decompound  Leaves  and  very  large,  with  ovate,  sessile,  serrate  leaflets  and 
prickly  petioles 8.  ARALIA  SPINOSA. 

aa.  Evergreen  Leaves  —  remaining  on  over  winter. 
b.  Needle-shaped  and  quite  stiff,  pointing  every  way. 

c.  Long,  5  8  in.,  in  fascicles  of  2  each,  a  broad,  membranous  sheath  enclosing 
the  base  of  each  pair 19.  PINUS  RESINOSA. 

CC.  Short,  8  lines  or  less,  scattered  (not  in  fascicles),  4-angled,  usually  more  or 
less  curved 20.  ABIES  NIGRA. 

bb.  Linear,  small,  flat  and  diverging  in  two  directions. 

c.  Petioled,  obscurely  denticulate,  8  lines  or  less  in  length. 

21.  ABIES  CANADENSTS. 

cc.  Sessile,  entire,  8  lines  or  more  in  length 22.  ABIES  BALSAMEA. 

bbb.  Scale- like  or  awl-shaped. 

c.  Imbricated  and  closely  appressed  in  four  ranks,  but  making  a  conspicuously 
flat  and  two-edged  branchlet 24.  THUJA  OCCIDENTALS. 

CC.  Scale-like  leaves,  smaller,  appressed  in  four  ranks  and  making  a  rather 
4-angled  than  flat  branchlet.  Awl-shaped  leaves  arranged  in 
whorls  of  three  each 25.  JUNIPERUS  VIRGINIANA. 

5 


34  KEY,  BASED  UPON  FRUIT. 


A  KEY,  BASED  UPON  THE  FRUIT, 

Designed  as  an  Aid  in  Identifying  the  Species  of  this  Series  when  in  Season  for 

Procuring  the  Fruit. 


N.  B.  —  The  remarks  concerning  the  use  of  the  Key  based  upon  the  Leaves  are  equally  true 
with  reference  to  this. 

a.  Free  Fruit  —  formed  by  the  ripening  of  a  single  pistil  either  simple  or  com- 
pound. 
b.  Indehiscent  pericarp. 

c.  Samara  —  dry,  1-celled,  1-seeded  and  with  1-2  membranous  wings. 

d.  In  terminal  panicles;  wing  somewhat  oblong-lanceolate,  with  a  lenticular 
seed  at  about  its  center,  and  beyond  which  the  wing  is  twisted 

(Ailanthus) 4.  A.  GLANDULOSUS. 

dd.  In  umbellate  corymbs,  each  pedicel  supporting  a  pair  of  samarae  with 
oblanceolate  wings  obtuse  at  the  apex,  and  with  main  rib  on  outer 

margin  (Acer) 7.  A.  SACCHARINUM. 

ddd.  In  axillary  racemes  or  panicles,  winged  at  the  apex  with  a  more  or  less 
lanceolate  obtuse  wing  (Fraxinus)  terete  at  the  base  —  the  seed 

portion 18.  F.  AMERICANA. 

dddd.  In  lateral  fascicles  or  clusters,  winged  all  round  (Ulmus)  very  short 
pedicillate,  nearly  orbicular  and  margin  not  ciliate.    11.  U.  PULVA. 
CC.  Drupe  or  drupe-like  and  with  a  single  seed. 
d.  Fibro  fleshy  and  dryish  pericarp. 

e.  Small,  subglobous  (Rhus),  in  terminal  thyrses  and  clothed  with  crimson 
acid  hairs 5.  R.  TYPHINA. 

ee*  Large,  about  2  in.,  with  edible  embryo  (Jnglans),  ovoid  or  oblong,  one  or 
several  together,  sessile  on  a  terminal  peduncle,  clothed  with 

brownish,  fragrant-  viscid  hairs 14.  J.  CINEREA. 

dd.  Fleshy  pericarp. 

€.  Ovoid,  with  striated  stone  (Nyssa),  bluish  black,  about  six  lines  in 
length,  usually  -clustered  two  or  three  together  on  a  single 
axillary  peduncle 9.  N.  MULTIFLORA. 

ee.  Globular,  purple,  small,  solitary  and  of  sweet  flavor  (Celtis). 

12.    C.  OCCIDENTALIS. 

ccc.  Drupe-like  but  containing  more  than  one  seed,  subglobose. 

d.  Five-seeded  and  crowned  with  the  persistent  calyx-teeth  and  styles  (Aralia), 

purple-black,  numerous,  in  panicked  umbels 8.  A.  SPINOSA. 

dd.  Two  to  five-seeded,  bluish  black  with  white  bloom,  scaly  bracted  under- 
neath (Juniperus) 25.  J.  VIRGTNIANA. 

CCCC.  Nut  —  hard,  single  coat,  and  furnished  with  an  involucral  cup  or  covering. 


KEY,  BASED  UPON  FRUIT.  35 

d.  Ovoid,  oblong  or  ellipsoidal,  surrounded  at  its  base  with  an  involucral  cup 
(Quercus),  which  is  shallow,  saucer-shaped  and  composed  of 
smooth,  closely  appressed  scales 15.  Q.  RUBRA. 

(Id.  Sharply  3-angled  and  in  pairs,  each  pair  invested  with  a  4-valved,  dehis- 
cent involucre  composed  of  prickly  scales  (Fagus). 

16.    F.  FERRUGINEA. 

tldd.  Short,  club-shaped,  surrounded  with  stiff  hairs,  tipped  with  the  per- 
sistent recurved  style  and  arranged  in  globular  heads  (Platanus). 

13.    P.  OCCIDENTALS. 

CCCCC,  Nut-like,  but  not  invested  with  an  involucre,  globose,  about  as  large  as 
peas  and  arranged  in  cymes  with  a  large,  leaf -like  bract  attached 

to  each  peduncle  (Tilia) 3.  T.  AMERICANA. 

bb.  Dehiscent  Pericarp. 

c.  Subglobose,  coriaceous,  dehiscent  by  2-3  valves  and  containing  one  or  very 
few  large  seeds  with  smooth,  shining  coat  and  a  large  scar  (Aes- 
culus)',  fruit  prickly  and  leaves  of  7  leaflets. 

6.  AES.  HIPPOCASTANUM. 

CC.  Small,  ovoid-lanceolate  pods  arranged  in  catkins,  opening  by  two  valves  and 
containing  numerous  seeds  furnished  with  silky  down  (Populus). 

18.    P.    GRANDIDENTATA. 

(l(l.  Aggregated   Fruit  —  composed   of  many  carpels,   either   closed  or  open   and 

cohering  or  closely  massed  together,  forming  a  cone. 
b.  Scales  of  the  cone  open  carpels  (Coniferce). 

€.  Scales  many,  persistent  and  spreading  at  maturity,  each  subtended  by  a  bract; 

ovules  2,  inverted. 

d.  Maturing  the  year  after  flowering  (Pimts),  ovate -conical,  about  2  in.  long, 
smooth,  carpellary  scales  slightly  thickened  at  the  apex,  per- 
sistent  19.  P.  RESINOSA. 

dd.  Maturing  the  first  season, —  the  autumn  after  blossoming. 

e*  Ovoid  or  oblong,  1-2  in.  long,  pendent;  bracts  inconspicuous;  scales  per- 
sistent on  the  axis,  thin  and  with  eroded  tip 20.  ABIES  NIGRA. 

ee.  Ovoid,  small,  8  lines  or  less,  pendent,  scales  rounded  and  entire  at  tip. 

21.  ABIES  CANADENSIS. 
eee.  Cylindrical,  large,  2-4  in.,  erect;  bracts  conspicuous,   exserted;  scales 

falling  from  the  axis  at  maturity 22.  ABIES  BALSAMEA. 

eeee.  Ovoid  or  roundish,  small,  9  lines  or  less,  scales  persistent  on  the  axis 

at  maturity 23.  LARIX  AMERICANA. 

CC.  Scales  few,  persistent,  bractless;  ovules  2-8,  erect;  cone  oblong  with  oblong, 
loosely  imbricated  scales  somewhat  thickened  at  the  tip;  seeds 

winged  all  round 24.  THUJA  OCCIDENTALS. 

bb.  Scales  3-lobed  bracts  each  subtending  2-3  closed,  indehiscent  carpels  —  minia- 
ture saniarse  (Betula) 17.   B.  LDTEA. 

bbb.  Scales  closed  carpels,  growing  from  an  elongated  receptacle  and  consolidated 
together. 

c.  Dehiscent  at  maturity  along  the  median  line  of  the  back,  and  letting  out  each 
1-2  berry-like  seeds  suspended  by  extensile  threads  (Magnolia). 

1.   M.  ACUMINATA. 
cc.  Indehiscent  at  maturity  and  falling  away  as  samarae. 

2.    LlRIODENDRON    TULIPIFERA 


A  SYSTEMATIC  STUDY 


SPECIES  WHOSE    WOODS   ARE  EEP RESENTED   IN   THE   ACCOM- 
PANYING SECTIONS. 


The  timbers  comprised  in  the  series,  which  this  text  is  designed  to 
accompany,  belong  to  what  are  known,  botanically  speaking,  as  Flower- 
ing and  Exogenous  Plants.  At  the  outset,  therefore,  we  will,  once  for 
all,  define  these  groups;  and,  as  the  characters  herein  given  are  equally 
true  of  all  the  species  enumerated  in  the  following  pages,  they  need  not 
be  repeated  in  the  further  definition  of  the  various  sub-groups  and 
species. 

FLOWERING  OR  PH^ENOGAMOUS  PLANTS. 

Vegetables  producing  flowers  which  consist  essentially  of  stamens  and 
pistils,  the  latter  bearing  ovules  or  seeds. 

In  distinction  from  the  Flowering  Plants  are  the  Flowerless  or  Cryptogamous 
Plants,  comprising  the  rest  of  the  vegetable  kingdom,  from  the  very  simply  organ- 
ized Slime  Moulds  and  Bacteria  up  to  the  highly  organized  Ferns  and  Club-Mosses. 
But  in  the  study  of  timbers  this  group  is  unimportant,  as  only  in  a  few  rare  cases  do 
any  of  its  representatives  attain  the  dimensions  of  trees.  Those  exceptions  are  the 
Tree-Ferns  of  tropical  countries  —  gigantic  ferns,  which  sometimes  attain  the  height 
of  fifty  or  sixty  feet,  with  straight  shafts  quite  like  tree  trunks  and  tops  consisting 
of  a  bunch  of  enormous  plume-like  fronds.  They,  however,  are  of  practically  no 
value  as  timber. 

EXOGENOUS  OR  DICOTYLEDONOUS  PLANTS. 

Flowering  plants  whose  stems  consist  of  a  central  column  of  pith  sur- 
rounded by  wood  in  concentric  layers,  and  this  in  turn  by  bark;  the 
stems  increasing  in  thickness  by  the  addition  of  a  new  layer  each  year  to 
the  wood  externally  and  to  the  bark  internally.  Leaves  mostly  netted- 
veined.  First  leaves  of  the  embryo  (cotyledons)  two  and  opposite,  or 
(in  the  Coniferae)  several  iu  a  whorl.  Parts  of  the  flower  in  fours  or 
fives,  very  rarely  in  threes. 


:.j8  llon.iiV  AMKKH  AN   WOODS. 

A  second  class  of  Flo/rt  /'i/i;/  Pl<intx  and  comprising  the  rest  of  tin*  group  is  the 
Kit  '/</'/<  nous  or  Monocotyledon  onx  I'lu.ntx,  characterized  by  having  stems  in  which  the 
wood  occurs  as  threads  or  bundles  running  through  a  cellular,  pith  -like  tissue,  BO  that 
a  transverse  section  exhibits  the  wood  as  dots  and  not  in  concentric  ring's.  Leaves 
mostly  parallel  veint-d.  Ftnbryo  with  single  cotyledon,  or  rarely  two,  and  then  alter. 
nate  and  unequal.  Parts  of  the  Hower  generally  in  threes.  In  southern  Tnited 
States  and  elsewhere  in  or  near  the  tropics  trees  are  found,  such  as  the  Palms,  etc., 
which  belong  to  this  class,  but  none  that  we  have  to  do  with  at  present. 

Exogenous  plants  are  subdivided  info  two  well-marked  groups  or  sub- 
classes —  Anyiospcrmce  and  Gymnospcrinw.  The  former  includes  by  far 
the  greater  part,  of  (be  Flowering  Plants,  and  is  represented  in  Part  I  of 
tills  work  by  eighteen  species.  Let  it  be  understood,  therefore,  that  its 
characters,  omitted  in  further  descriptions,  apply  equally  to  all  the  species 
up  to  and  including  the  eighteenth. 

ANGIOSPKRM/E. 

Flowering,  exogenous  plants  in  which  there  is  a  complete  pistil  —  with 
stigma  and  closed  ovary  —  containing  ovules  which  develop  into  seeds  at 
maturity.  This  sub-class  comprises  many  groups  of  plants  known  as 
Order*,  a  few  of  which  will  be1  taken  up  in  the  following  pages.  Con- 
sidering them  in  the  sequence  commonly  accepted  by  botanists,  we  will 
first  characterize  the 

(M;m;i;  MAGNOLIACE^E:  MAGNOLIA  FAMILY. 

/Vc/rr.s-  alternate,  simple,  coriaceous,  entire  or  lobed  (never  toothed),  marked  with 
minute  transparent  dots,  feather-  veined;  leal'  buds  covered  with  membranous 
stipules,  which  .'-non  fall  away.  l^loiri  y\  single,  large,  polypetalous.  polyandrous, 
polygamous,  hypogenous,  perfect;  sepals  and  petals  colored  alike,  in  three  or  more 
circles  of  three  each,  imbricated  in  the  bud,  deciduous;  anthers  adnate;  pistils 
numerous,  packed  together  and  covering  the  elongated  receptacle,  and  forming  in 
Fruit  a  sort  of  fleshy  OL  dry  cone  containing  one  or  two  .seeds  in  each  carpel,  with  a 
minute  embryo  in  fleshy  albumen. 

Trees  or  shrubs  with  aromatic  and  bitter  bark. 


L<<II-<X  folded  lengthwise  in  the  bud,  embracing  and  embraced  bv  the  sheathing 
stipules.  Leaf  buds  conical.  /<7o//vr.v  large,  fragrant;  sepals  :!;  petals  b'-9;  anthers 
longer  than  the  filaments  and  opening  inward;  carpels  !3-valved  and  '.'seeded,  aggre- 
gated and  coherent  in  a  mass.  /*'/•>///  a  fleshy,  somewhat  woodv  cone,  each  carpel 
opening  at  maturity  along  jis  back,  letting  out  its  1  or  2  berry  like  seeds,  sus- 
pended each  by  a  long,  extensile  thread. 

Trees  and  shrubs,  ((ieniis  named  in  compliment  to  Prof.  Pierre  Magnol,  an  early 
French  botanist.) 

i.  MAGNOLIA  ACUMINATA,   L. 

Cl<  T.MI'.KK    TlJKK,    MoCNTAJN    MAUNOUA. 

(f  cr.,    Jjanrjgvxpif-ztv    Magnolia;    Fr.,   Magnolia    a  feuillcs  pointer;    Sp., 

Magnolia  a  ami  in  ad  a  . 

Srr.riKtr  CHARACTERS:  —  L«ir,x  scattered  along  the  branches  (i.  e.,  not  gathered 
exclusively  at  the  tips,  as  in  some  Magnolias),  oblong  or  oval,  acuminate,  green 


1.  MAGNOLIA  AC UM IN ATA —  CUCUMBER  TREE.  39 

both  sides  and  slightly  pubescent  beneath;  leaf -buds  silky.  Flowers  (May,  June) 
erect,  of  feeble  odor,  oblong,  bell-shaped  with  obovate  petals  about  2  .or  3  in.  (5  to 
8  cm.)  in  length,  glaucous,  greenish  or  bluish  tinged  with  yellow.  Fruit  a  cone 
2-3  in.  (5-8  cm.)  long,  usually  somewhat  curved,  giving  the  appearance  of  a  cucum- 
ber; whence  the  common  name — Cucumber  Tree. 

Fresh  bark  and  leaves,  when  bruised,  of  a  pleasant,  aromatic  odor  and  a  bitter, 
aromatic  flavor.  (Specific  name,  acuminata,  is  Lat.  for  made  pointed,  acuminate,  and 
is  here  applied  to  the  shape  of  the  leaf.) 

A  large,  handsome  and  symmetrically  shaped  tree,  sometimes  reaching 
the  height  of  100  ft.  (30  m.),  with  a  trunk  4  ft.  (1.22  m.)  in  diameter, 
straight  and  cylindrical.  It  is  particularly  handsome  when  in  bloom, 
as  then  the  light  green  or  yellowish  blossoms  show  very  prettily  against 
the  rich,  dark  green  and  rather  dense  foliage.  Later,  its  curious  fruit 
with  dangling  bright  red  seeds,  gives  the  tree  from  near  by,  another, 
yet  quite  as  pretty,  aspect. 

HABITAT.  —  Western  New  York  to  Illinois  and  southward  along  the 
Alleganies  to  the  Gulf  States,  in  rich,  deep  soil,  particularly  along  slopes 
where  the  air  is  moist  from  the  proximity  of  water.  Eeaches  its  greatest 
development  in  the  southern  part  of  its  range. 

PHYSICAL  PROPERTIES.  — Wood  soft,  light,  close-grained,  durable  and 
compact,  yielding  a  satiny  finish.  Sap-wood  is  nearly  white  and  the 
heart  of  a  yellowish  brown  or  somewhat  olive  color.  The  end  of  the 
grain  in  the  log,  assumes,  soon  after  being  cut,  a  bluish  color.  Specific 
Gravity,  0.4090;  Percentage  of  Ash,  0.29;  Relative  Approximate  Fuel 
Value,  0.4676;  Coefficient  of  Elasticity,  92817;  Modulus  of  Rupture, 
671;  Resistance  to  Longitudinal  Pressure,  415;  Resistance  to  Indentation, 
107;  Weight  of  a  Cubic  Foot  in  Pounds,  29.23. 

USES.  — This  wood  is  extensively  worked  into  furniture,  especially  of 
the  cheaper  grades,  crates,  packing-boxes,  etc.  It  quite  closely  resem- 
bles the  Tulip-wood,  with  which  it  is  often  confounded  by  careless 
observers,  and,  like  that  wood,  is  largely  used  in  interior-finishing,  as  for 
doors,  wainscots,  etc.  Its  compactness  makes  it  especially  useful  for 
bowls,  troughs,  general  wooden- ware,  pump-logs,  cheese-boards,  etc., 
for  which  it  is  extensively  employed. 

MEDICINAL  PROPERTIES.  —  The  bark  of  this  species,  and  also  that  of 
other  Magnolias,  is  officinal  and  possesses  gently  stimulant,  aromatic, 
tonic  and  diaphoretic  properties.  The  bark  of  the  root  is  richest  in 
these  properties.  It  is  useful  in  chronic  rheumatism,  and  capable,  if 
freely  given,  of  arresting  the  paroxysms  of  intermittent  fever.  It  has 
been  used  advantageously  in  these  complaints  and  in  remittents,  especi- 
ally of  a  typhoid  character.  The  dose  of  the  recently  dried  bark  in 
powder  is  from  half  a  drachm  to  a  drachm  (1.95  to  3.9  Gm.),  frequently 
repeated.  The  infusion  may  also  be  used,  but  is  less  efficient.  Diluted 
alcohol  extracts  all  the  virtues  of  the  medicine;  and  a  tincture,  made  by 


40  HOUGH'S  AMERICAN  WOODS. 

macerating  the  fresh  bark  or  fruit  in  brandy,  is  a  popular  remedy  in 
chronic  rheumatism.* 

NOTE. —  A  very  thin  longitudinal  section  of  this  timber,  looked 
through  in  the  dark  toward  a  lighted  lamp,  shows  an  interesting  and 
pretty  phenomenon.  As  it  is  held  with  the  grain  horizontal,  there  is 
seen  to  the  right  and  left  of  the  light  —  or  the  lighted  point  directly  in 
range  with  the  light  —  a  display  of  the  prismatic  colors,  which  is  quite 
brilliant  and  beautiful.  They  seem  like  miniature  sundogs,  and  there 
are  two  or  three  of  them  on  each  side  of  the  light,  those  nearest  being 
brightest. 

A  microscopic  examination  reveals  the  cause  of  this  interesting  appear- 
ance. The  wood  is  found  to  be  copiously  supplied  with  spiral  ducts,  i.  e., 
ducts  whose  walls  are  marked  with  a  spiral  thickening  (See  §  11,  p.  2). 
These  spirals  are  so  small  that  their  coils  would  number  several  thousand 
to  the  inch.  They  can  be  distinctly  traced  by  varying  the  focus  of  the 
instrument;  but,  at  a  certain  focus,  where  only  one  side  of  the  spiral  can 
be  seen,  they  seem  like  rows  of  parallel  crystals  or  prisms,  and  it  is  by 
these  that  the  light  is  refracted,  causing  the  display  of  colors  quite  as  the 
crystals  of  frost  in  the  air  in  winter  cause  the  colors  in  the  sundogs. 

GENUS  LIRIODENDRON,  L. 

Leaves  folded  crosswise  in  the  bud,  each  infolding  all  that  is  interior  to  it,  and  is 
itself  infolded  by  its  pair  of  stipules  and  the  next  lower  leaf,  and  so  on;  buds  flat, 
the  large,  sheathing,  oval  stipules  caducous.  Flowers  showy,  with  3  reflected  cadu- 
cous  sepals,  and  6  erect  petals  in  two  rows,  making  a  bell-shaped  corolla;  anthers 
linear,  opening  outward;  carpels  flat,  scale-like,  long  and  narrow,  imbricating  and 
cohering  together  in  an  elongated  dry  cone,  separating  at  maturity  and  falling  away 
whole  as  samarae,  somewhat  lanceolate  in  shape  and  each  bearing  1-2  seeds  in  its 
base,  indehiscent. 

Trees  of  fine  aspect.     (Name  from  the  Gk.  X.Eipiov,  lily,  and  devdpov,  tree.} 


2.  LIRIODENDRON  TULIPIFERA,  L. 

TULIP  TREE,  WHITE-WOOD,  WHITE  OR  YELLOW  "  POPLAR,"  CANOE- 
WOOD. 

Ger.,   Tulpenbaum;  Fr.,   Tulipier;  Sp.,   Tulip if 'ero. 

SPECIFIC  CHARACTERS  : —  Leaves  dark  green,  very  smooth  and  shining,  truncate, 
with  two  spreading  lobes  separated  by  a  broad,  shallow  sinus  at  the  apex,  and  with 
two  lateral  lobes  near  the  base,  3-5  in.  (8-13  cm.)  in  length  and  of  about  the  same 
width,  long  petioles.  Flowers  (May,  June)  solitary,  erect,  more  bell-shaped  than  the 
common  garden  tulip,  greenish  yellow  marked  with  orange.  Fruit  (September)  a 
greenish  cone  2-3  inch.  (5-8  cm.)  in  length,  the  scales  of  which  —  in  reality  so  many 
samerse —  persisting  long  after  the  leaves  have  fallen,  and  then  more  or  less  spread- 
ing and  bleached  nearly  white,  give  the  tree  in  winter  a  very  characteristic 
appearance. 

(Tnlipifera  from  Persian  toulyban,  a  turban — whence  from  resemblance  in  the  flower 
the  Eng.  "  tulip  "  —  and  Lat.  fero,  I  bear.} 

*U.  S.  Dispensatory,  15th  ed.,  pp.  916-917. 


2.    LlRIODENDRON    TuLIPIFERA  —  TULIP    TREE.  41 

One  of  our  grandest  trees,  sometimes  150  ft.  (46  m.)  in  height  and 
with  a  trunk  JO  ft.  (3  m.)  in  diameter  at  the  base,  columnar,  and  of  great 
length.  Branches  regularly  disposed.  The  bruised  bark  or  leaves,  when 
fresh,  possess  a  rather  pleasant  aromatic  odor  and  bitter,  pungent  flavor. 

HABITAT.  —  Southern  New  England,  New  York  and  Ontario  to  Michi- 
gan and  thence  southward  nearly  to  the  Gulf  coast,  reaching  its  maxi- 
mum development  between  the  Alleganies  and  the  Mississippi. 

PHYSICAL  PROPERTIES.  —  Wood  light,  rather  strong,  with  close, 
straight  grain,  compact,  easily  worked  and  yielding  a  satiny  finish.  Sap- 
wood  nearly  white;  heart-wood  of  a  light  lemon  yellow  color,  or  some- 
times of  a  brownish  tint  —  whence  its  two  seemingly  contradictory 
names,  White  and  Yellow  Poplar,  the  former  referring  to  the  sap- 
wood  and  the  latter  to  the  heart.  The  name  "Poplar,"  though,  is 
wrongly  applied  to  this  species,  as  it  is  very  different  from  and  much 
more  valuable  than  the  true  Poplar.  Specific  Gravity,  0.4230; 
Percentage  of  Ash,  0.23 ;  Relative  Approximate  Fuel  Value,  0.4220; 
Coefficient  of  Elasticity,  92667;  Modulus  of  Rupture,  657;  Resistance 
to  Longitudinal  Pressure,  372;  Resistance  to  Indentation,  82;  Weight  of 
a  Cubic  Foot  in  Rounds,  26.36. 

USES.  —  This  timber,  being  comparatively  tough  and  -easily  worked,  is 
extensively  substituted  in  localities  where  abundant  for  the  white  pine 
in  interior-finishing  —  doors,  panels,  wainscoting,  —  and  is  sometimes 
used  for  boat-building,  shingles,  etc.  It  very  much  resembles  cucumber- 
wood,  and  is  largely  used  for  the  same  purposes  as  that  timber  —  for 
pump-logs,  bowls  and  wooden-ware  in  general.  It  is  said  to  make  excel- 
lent charcoal.  Paper  has  been  made  from  the  bark.*  The  name  canoe- 
wood  was  given  to  this  timber  from  the  fact  that  the  Indians  found  it 
one  of  the  very  best  for  use  in  making  their  "dug-out"  canoes,  and  they 
are  said  to  have  made  them  large  enough  sometimes  to  carry  twenty  or 
thirty  persons  in  a  single  canoe. 

MEDICINAL  PROPERTIES.  —  The  bark,  especially  of  the  roots,  possesses 
medical  properties  which  are  "  stimulant,  tonic  and  diaphoretic.  It 
has  been  used  as  a  substitute  for  Peruvian  bark  in  intermittent  fevers, 
and  has  proved  serviceable  in  chronic  rheumatism,  dyspepsia,  and  other 
complaints  in  which  a  gentle  stimulant  and  tonic  impression  is  desirable. 
The  dose  of  the  bark  in  powder  is  from  half  a  drachm  to  two  drachms. 
The  infusion  and  decoction  are  also  use'd,  but  are  less  efficient.  They 
may  be  prepared  in  the  proportion  of  an  ounce  of  the  bark  to  a  pint  of 
water  and  given  in  the  quantity  of  one  or  two  fluid  ounces.  The  dose 
of  the  saturated  tincture  is  a  fluid  drachm.-"  f 

*  Elements  of  Forestry.     By  Franklin  B.  Hough,  p.  250. 
ttf".  8.  Dispensatory,  15th  ed.,  p.  1687. 

6 


42  HOUGH'S  AMERICAN  WOODS. 

The  above  is  what  we  learn  from  officinal  source,  but  it  might  not  be 
out  of  place  to  further  mention  that  in  Micheaux  "Sylva"  (vol.  II., 
pp.  41  and  42)  we  find  that,  "combined  with  laudanum  (which  makes  it 
more  easily  borne  in  the  stomach),  it  has  frequently  dissipated  alarming 
symptoms  of  pulmonary  consumption.  It  has  also  been  successfully 
used  in  a  case  of  catarrh  complicated  with  dyspepsia,  in  hysterical 
affections  (in  the  latter  case  combined  with  a  small  quantity  of  lauda- 
num), in  cholera  infantum,  and  as  a  remedy  for  worms.  In  a  persistent 
case  of  remittent  fever  it  was  found  more  efficacious  than  Peruvian 
bark." 

ORDER  TILIACEJE    LINDEN  FAMILY. 

Leaves  simple,  stipulate,  alternate,  dentate.  Flowers  polypetalous,  or  rarely 
apetalous,  axillary,  hypogenous,  usually  perfect  and  polyadelphous;  sepals  4-5,  decidu- 
ous, valvate  in  the  bud;  petals  4-5  imbricated  in  the  bud;  stamens  numerous  and 
with  versatile  anthers;  ovary  of  2-10  united  carpels;  styles  united  and  stigmas  as 
many  as  the  carpels.  Fruit  dry  or  succulent,  many  celled,  or,  by  abortion,  1 -celled, 
each  cell  bearing  from  one  to  several  seeds. 

Represented  by  trees,  rarely  shrubs  or  herbs. 

GENUS  TILIA,  L. 

Leaves  more  or  less  heart-shaped  and  oblique,  serrate;  stipules  deciduous.  Flowers 
cream  color,  in  small  cymes,  hanging  on  an  axillary  peduncle,  which  is  adnate  to  the 
vein  of  a  large,  leaf -like  bract;  sepals  5,  united,  colored;  petals  5,  spatulate-oblong; 
stamens  numerous,  the  filaments  cohering  in  clusters,  and  with  each  cluster  in  the 
American  species  is  a  spatulate,  petal-like  scale,  placed  opposite  each  of  the  real 
petals;  ovary  superior,  5-celled  with  2  ovules  in  each  cell;  style  single,  stigma 
5-toothed.  Fruit  a  globose  and  rather  woody  nut,  1-celled  by  abortion  and 
1-2-seeded.  In  the  dissemination  of  these,  the  leaf-like  bract,  described  above,  acts 
as  a  parachute. 

Trees.     ("  Tilia  "  is  the  ancient  Latin  name  of  the  Linden.) 


3.  TILIA  AMERICANA,  L. 

BASSWOOD,  AMERICAN  LINDEN  OR  LIN,  LIME-TREE,  BEE-TREE. 

Ger.,    Amerikanisclie    Linde;     Fr.,     Tilleul    d' Amerique;    Sp.,     Tilio 

Americano. 

SPECIFIC  CHARACTERS:  —  Leaves  large,  3-5  in.  (8-13  cm.)  or  more  in  length  and  about 
as  broad,  more  or  less  heart  shaped  and  unequal  at  the  base,  serrate,  pointed,  green 
on  both  sides  and  glabrous  or  nearly  so.  Flowers  cream-color,  richly  fragrant  and 
honey-bearing,  each  flower  having  interior  to  its  petals  and  opposite  them,  five  petal- 
like  bodies,  at  the  bases  of  which  are  the  stamens  arranged  in  clusters  or  tufts. 

A  large  and  important  forest  tree  in  the  Northern  and  Middle  States, 
growing  in  loose,  rich  soil,  and  often  attaining  the  dimensions  of  80  ft. 
(24  m.)  or  more  in  height  and  4  ft.  (1.22  m.)  in  thickness  of  trunk  near 
the  base.  When  growing  in  open  fields,  the  top  develops  symmetrically 
and  to  a  large  size. 


3.  TILIA  AMERICANA  —  BASSWOOD.  43 

HABITAT.  —  North-eastern  United  States  and,  less  abundantly, 
Canada,  westward  to  Nebraska  and  Kansas,  and  southward  along  the 
Alleganies  to  the  Gulf  States. 

PHYSICAL  PROPERTIES.  — Wood  light,  soft,  quite  tough,  close-grained, 
compact  and  easily  worked.  Sap-wood,  when  properly  seasoned,  is  very 
light  colored,  nearly  white,  but  as  more  often  seen  is  tinted  with  a  brown 
or  yellowish  color;  heart,  light  brown.  Specific  Gravity,  0.4525;  Per- 
centage of  Ash,  0.55;  Relative  Approximate  Fuel  Value,  0.4500;  Coeffi- 
cient of  Elasticity,  84010;  Modulus  of  Rupture,  589;  Resistance  to 
Longitudinal  Pressure,  348;  Resistance  to  Indentation,  63;  Weight  of  a 
Cubic  Foot  in  Pounds,  28.20. 

USES.  —  This  timber  is  useful  for  many  purposes,  taking  the  place  of 
pine  in  some  localities,  and  very  largely  the  place  of  the  tulip  and 
cucumber  wood  north  of  the  range  of  those  timbers.  It  is  extensively  used 
for  furniture,  especially  drawer-backs  and  sides,  sometimes  for  interior- 
finishing,  for  wooden- ware,  etc.,  and  to  some  extent  for  paper  pulp  and 
charcoal.  A  use  for  which  it  is  particularly  adapted  on  account  of  its 
toughness  is  the  manufacture  of  panels,  carriage  and  cutter  boxes,  dashes, 
etc.  For  getting  out  lumber  for  this  latter  use,  we  have  recently  seen  a 
new  and  very  ingeniously  devised  machine,  used  at  first  at  least  with  this 
kind  of  timber  exclusively.  It  is  for  sawing  around  the  log,  thus  making 
a  board  as  long  as  the  log  and  perhaps  a  hundred  feet  broad,  when  the 
log  is  very  large  —  a  curious  looking  board  as  it  stands  on  end  (of  the 
grain),  coiled  up  like  a  huge  roll  of  carpeting. 

The  inner  bark  of  this  wood,  known  as  bast, —  whence  the  name  Bast- 
wood  or  Basswood, —  is  very  fibrous  and  used,  after  macerating,  in  the 
manufacture  of  matting  and  an  inferior  cordage. 

A  by  no  means  unimportant  point  of  value  in  connection  with  this 
tree  is  the  most  excellent  honey  which  its  flowers  yield  in  abundance,  and 
so  active  are  the  myriads  of  bees  and  other  insects  in  gathering  this  dur- 
ing the  flowering  season  that  the  din  of  their  humming  may  be  heard 
some  yards  from  the  tree. 

MEDICINAL  PROPERTIES.  —  None  are  omcinally  recognized  in  this 
country.  In  Europe,  however,  Aqua  Tilice,  which  is  an  infusion  of  the 
flowers,  buds  and  leaves  of  the  various  species  of  Tilia,  is  said  to  possess 
anti-spasmodic  and  cephalic  properties.  It  is  used  as  a  domestic  remedy 
in  cases  of  indigestion,  nervousness,  etc.  (Nat.  Dispensatory,  2d  ed., 
1429.)* 

ORDER  SIMARUBACEJE. 

Leaves  generally  compound  and  alternate,  inodorous  and  not  bearing  pellucid  dots. 
Flowers  polypetalous,  regular,  3-5-numerous,  hypogenous,  perfect  or  polygamous; 

*U.  S.  Census,  1880,  vol.  IX,  p.  27. 


44  HOUGH'S  AMERICAN  WOODS. 

stamens  distinct  and  usually  as  many  or  twice  as  many  as  the  sepals;  pistils  2-5, 
separate  or  combined  into  a  compound  ovary  of  as  many  cells,  sessile  or  raised  on  a 
prolongation  of  the  receptacle;  styles  mostly  cohering,     Fruit  usually  capsular,  1-2 
seeds  in  each  carpel. 
Shrubs  and  trees. 

GENUS  AILANTHUS,  DESF. 

Leaves  pinnate.  Flowers  small  and  greenish  in  panicles,  polygamous;  sepals  5, 
more  or  less  united  at  the  base;  petals  5 ;  stamens  in  the  perfect'flowers  2-3,  in  the 
monoecious  flowers  10;  ovaries  2-5,  styles  lateral.  Fruit  1 -eel led,  1 -seeded,  linear- 
oblong,  thin,  veiny  sainara3. 

Trees  and  shrubs. 

(Ailanthus  is  formed  from  the  Molucca  name  Ailanto  or  Aylanto.} 

4.  AILANTHUS  GLANDULOSUS,  DESF. 

AILANTHUS,  TREE-OF-HEAVEN. 

Ger.,    Driisiger    Gotterbaum;    Fr.,    Ailante    glanduleux;    Sp.,   Barniz 

falso  de  Japan. 

SPECIFIC  CHARACTERS: — Leaves  glabrous,  sometimes  4  ft.  (1.22  m.)  long,  pinnately 
compound  with  10-20  pairs  of  leaflets  and  an  odd  terminal  one;  leaflets  pointed,  oblong- 
lanceolate  or  ovate,  with  one  or  two  glandular  teeth  near  the  base,  short- petiolate 
excepting  the  terminal  one  which  is  long-petiolate.  Flowers  (May,  June)  in  terminal 
panicles,  polygamous,  small,  greenish  and  of  disagreeable  odor. 

(The  specific  name,  glandulosus,  is  a  Latin  word  meaning  gland-bearing.} 

A  large  tree  of  rapid  growth,  luxuriant  foliage  and  rather  smooth  bark. 

HABITAT. —  An  introduced  tree  of  hardy  nature.  It  grows  well  with 
us  in  nearly  all  localities,  and  in  places  seems  thoroughly  naturalized. 
It  is  a  native  of  China  and  Japan. 

PHYSICAL  PROPERTIES. —  Wood  not  very  hard,  of  medium  weight  and 
rather  open  grain;  light  brownish  yellow;  sap-wood  lighter  than  the 
heart,  and  the  line  of  transition  from  sap  to  heart  is  marked  by  an  orange- 
colored  band. 

USES. —  The  timber  is  very  little  used  in  this  country,  but  in  Europe 
is  used  in  the  manufacture  of  wooden-ware  and  for  charcoal.  In  this 
country  the  Ailanthus  is  principally  useful  as  a  shade  tree,  and  is  espe- 
cially suited  to  planting  in  city  parks  and  along  streets,  owing  to  its  very 
rapid  growth  and  handsome  ample  foliage.  However,  it  has  one  bad 
trait,  which  in  the  minds  of  those  living  near  it  often  countervails 
all  that  may  be  said  in  its  favor;: — the  odor  which  its  blossoms  emit  is  very 
disagreeable  and  sickening.  Considering  that,  the  name  Trce-of- Heaven 
seems  to  be  very  wrongly  applied.  All  we  can  say  is  that  it  is  a  transla- 
tion of  the  Molucca  name,  Ailanto,  which  is  said  to  be  given  to  it  on 
account  of  its  lofty  growth.  Its  growth  may  seem  lofty  enough  in  the 
Moluccas  to  justify  such  an  appellation,  but  if  could  hardly  be  compared 
with  many  of  our  native  American  trees.  In  China  and  some  parts  of 
Europe  the  leaves  afford  food  for  a  species  of  silk-worm,  which  produces 
an  excellent  quality  of  silk. 


5.  BHUS   TYPHINA —  SUMACH.  45 

MEDICINAL  PROPERTIES. —  The  bark,  which  possesses  a  pungent  bitter 
taste,  has  been  found  to  possess  "active  anthelmintic  properties.  In  a 
pondered  state,  in  dose  from  7  or  8  to  30  grains  (0.46  to  1.95  Gin.),  it 
has  been  given  in  several  cases  of  tape-worm  in  the  human  subject,  and 
has  proved  remarkably  successful  in  causing  its  expulsion,  at  the  same 
time  having  a  not  very  violent  cathartic  action.  In  China  the  bark  is 
very  popular  as  a  remedy  for  dysenteric  and  other  bowel  complaints.5'  * 

ORDER  ANACARDIACE/E,  CHESHEW  FAMILY. 

Leaves  alternate,  simple  or  compound,  without  pellucid  dots;  stipules  none. 
Flowers  polypetalous,  small,  often  polygamous,  regular  and  furnished  with  bracts; 
sepals  3-5,  united  at  the  base,  persistent;  petals  5  (or  sometimes  wanting),  imbricated 
in  the  bud;  stamens  5,  alternate  with  the  petals,  perigynous;  ovary  free,  1 -celled  and 
1-ovuled;  styles  or  stigmas  3.  Fruit  a  berry  or  drupe,  the  seed  containing  no 
albumen. 

Trees  or  shrubs  with  a  milky  resinous  or  gummy  acrid  juice,  which  as  well  as  the 
exhalations  are  often  poisonous. 

GENUS  RHUS,  L. 

Leaves  mostly  compound.     Flowers  greenish  or  yellowish,  often  imperfect  by 
abortion;  styles  3;  stigmas  capitate.    Fruit  a  small,  indehiscent,  1-seeded,  dry  drupe. 
(The  name  Rhus  is  the  old  Latin  and  Greek  for  the  Sumac.) 


5.  RHUS  TYPHINA,  L. 

SUMACH,  STAG-HORN  SUMACH,  VIRGINIAN  SUMACH. 
Ger.,  Hirschkolben  Sumach;  Fr.,  Sumac;  Sp.,  Zumaque. 

SPECIFIC  CHARACTERS. —  Leaves  odd-pinnate  with  11-31  oblong-lanceolate  pointed 
and  serrate  leaflets  more  or  less  pubescent  beneath.  Branches,  leaf-stalks  etc. 
densely  velvety  hairy.  Flowers  (June)  polygamous  in  terminal  thyrses.  Fruit 
globular,  clothed  with  very  acid  crimson  hairs  and  containing  a  smooth  stone.  Not 
poisonous  to  the  touch  as  are  some  representatives  of  the  genus. 

A  small  tree,  with  thick  straggling  branches,  very  rarely  attaining  the 
dimensions  of  20  ft.  (6  m.)  in  height  and  10  in.  (0.25  m.)  in  diameter  of 
trunk  at  base;  often  hardly  more  than  a  shrub.  The  bark  when 
bruised  yields  an  abundant  milky  and  sticky  juice.  The  leaves  put  on 
their  bright  autumnal  tints  early,  and  the  compact  bunches  of  downy 
red  fruit  on  the  tips  of  the  branches  give  the  tree  a  striking  and  charac- 
teristic appearance  after  the  leaves  have  fallen.  The  name  "Stag-horn" 
is  given  to  this  species  from  the  resemblance  we  see  in  the  soft  velvety 
coating  of  the  twigs,  to  that  of  the  stags  antlers  when  growing  and  "  in 
the  velvet."  The  branching  of  the  tree  likewise  is  quite  suggestive  of 
the  branching  of  a  pair  of  antlers. 

*U.  S.  Dispensatory,  15th  ed.,  p.  1564. 


4'i  Ho  TOR'S  AMERICAN  WOODS. 

HABITAT. —  Canada  and  north-eastern  United  States,  westward  to 
Minnesota  and  reaching  its  southern-most  limit  along  the  Alleganies, 
growing  in  stony  sandy  soil,  particularly  on  open  hill-sides,  where  we 
often  find  it  in  extensive  thickets. 

PHYSICAL  PROPERTIES. —  Wood  light,  soft,  brittle,  rather  close- 
grained,  of  a  markedly  greenish  and  yellowish  color  and  somewhat 
aromatic.  The  sap-wood  which  occupies  scarcely  one  annual  ring  is 
nearly  white  next  the  hark,  and  of  a  handsome  gold  and  orange  color 
farther  in.  When  freshly  worked  the  wood  is  very  beautiful,  but  in 
time  loses  in  part  the  brightness  of  its  colors.  Specific  Gravity,  0.4357; 
Percentage  of  Ash,  0.50;  Relative  Approximate  Fuel  Value,  0.4335; 
Weic/lit  of  a  Cubic  Foot  in  Pound*,  27.15. 

USES. —  Timber  cannot  be  obtained  in  large  enough  pieces  to  be  of 
great  utility.  It  is  occasionally  used  as  choice  pieces  for  inlaying  cabinet- 
work, where  it  finishes  nicely  and  has  a  beautiful  effect.  The  wood  is 
said  sometimes  to  be  used  in  dyeing.  The  bark  and  leaves  as  well  as  the 
fruit  are  used  for  the  same  purpose. 

MEDICINAL  PROPERTIES. —  None  are  officially  recognized  of  this 
species,  although  some  are  ascribed  to  the  closely  allied  Smooth  Sumach 
(It.  (jlabra).  Of  that  the  berries  are  astringent  and  refrigerant,  a 
decoction  or  diluted  fluid  extract  of  which  —  especially  in  combination 
with  the  chlorate  of  potassium — affords  an  effective  and  pleasant  gargle 
in  inflammation  and  ulceration  of  the  throat.* 

The  root  has  been  found  efficacious  in  fevers. f 

ORDER  SAPINDACE^E  :  SOAPBEKKY  FAMILY. 

Leaves  simple  or  compound.  Flmrers  poly  petal  cms,  often  irregular  and  mostly 
symmetrical:  sepals  aud  petals  each  -4-5,  imbricated  in  the  bud,  the  petals  inserted 
with  the  5-10  stamens  on  a  perigyuous  or  hypogeuous  disk;  ovary  2-8-celled  and 
lobed,  usually  l-'3  ovules  in  each  cell,  embryo  mostly  convoluted;  no  albumen. 
Fruit  a  membranous,  inflated  pod,  a  leathery  thick  subspherical  pod  with  nut-like 
seeds,  or  a  winged  samara. 

OKNTTS  ;ES(1ULTIS,  L. 

Lear?*,  opposite,  digitately  compound,  destitute  of  stipules;  leaflets  serrate  and 
straight-veined.  Flnircr*  paniculate,  terminal,  unsymmet rical,  irregular,  often 
polygamous;  pedicels  jointed;  calyx  tubular,  5-toothed,  often  rather  gibbous  at  the 
basef  corrolla  irregular,  4  or  sometimes  5-petaled,  nearly  hypogenous;  stamens  6-8, 
usually  7,  distinct  and  often  unequal,  with  long  and  slender  filaments;  style  1,  fili- 
form; ovary  •)  celled,  with  2  ovules  in  each  cell,  only  one  of  which,  or  one  in  each 
cell  comes  to  maturity.  Ffuil  roundish,  coriaceous,  dehiscent,  2  8  valved,  contain- 
ino-'l  :',  lar"-e  smooth,  leathery  and  shining  seeds,  each  with  a  large,  pale  scar; 
cotyledons  thick,  bulky  and  inseparable,  rich  in  starch,  but  of  bitter  taste,  remaining 
underground  in  germination. 

(A<'M-n/,nx  is  a  Latin  name,  but  in  ancient  times  applied  to  a  kind  of   oak.) 


*  /7   ,S'    J  >;*)>(•  n.*dt  or  if,  Ifithed.,  p.  1-44. 

tG.  H.  Emerson's  7W*  «,nl  Mrufi*  of  Max*achnseUs. 


6.    JESCULUS   HlPPOCASTANUM —  HORSE   CHESTNUT.  4? 

6.  ^ESCULUS  HIPPOCASTANUM,  L. 

HOUSE  CHESTNUT. 
Ger.,  Roszlcastanie;  Fr.,  Marronier  (T  Inde;  Spi,  Castarlo  de  caballo. 

SPECIFIC  CHARACTERS: — Leaves  digitately  compound,  with  seven  obovate  or  some- 
what wedge-shaped,  serrate  leaflets.  Flowers  (May,  June)  in  very  showy  pyramidal 
racemes;  petals  five,  spreading,  white  or  with  a  pink  flush,  spotted  with  purple  and 
yellow;  stamens  declined.  There  are  double-flowered,  variegated  and  other  varieties 
with  more  or  less  lobed  or  cut-leaves. 

(Hippocastanum  is  from  Gk.  zWoS,  horse,  and  udGrcLvov,  chestnut.  The  name 
is  applied  to  the  tree  from  the  fact  that  in  some  parts  of  Europe  its  fruit  is  employed 
in  veterinary  medicine.) 

A  very  common  and  handsome  shade-tree,  usually  of  medium  size, 
though  sometimes  attaining  the  dimensions  of  80  ft.  (24  m.)  in  height, 
and  4  ft.  (1.22  m.)  in  thickness  of  trunk  at  base.  While  in  blossom, 
this  is  one  of  our  most  showy  trees,  with  its  numerous  pyramids  of 
handsome  flowers  contrasting  boldly  with  the  dark  green  and  copious 
foliage. 

HABITAT. — As  this  is  an  introduced  tree,  no  particular  habitat  in 
this  country  could  be  given.  It  grows  well  and  quite  rapidly  wherever 
planted  in  the  United  States,  especially  in  the  Middle  and  Southern 
States.  The  climate  here  in  Northern  New  York  seems  a  little  too  rigor- 
ous for  it.  Its  native  country  is  supposed  to  be  Asia,  whence  it 
has  been  extensively  introduced  into  Europe  and  thence  into  the  United 
States,  where  it  is  now  abundant  in  parks  and  along  streets  as  an  orna- 
mental shade  tree. 

PHYSICAL  PROPERTIES.  —  Wood  light,  soft  and  very  close-grained, 
whitish,  slightly  tinted  with  yellow. 

USES.  —  In  this  country  this  timber  could  hardly  be  said  to  be  put  to 
any  particular  use  at  present  as  it  is  not  in  the  market,  and,  with  our 
numerous  native  timbers,  we  scarcely  feel  the  need  of  it.  In  Europe  it 
is  of  value  in  the  hands  of  carvers  and  turners,  which  we  would  naturally 
infer  from  its  soft,  fine  and  close-grained  nature.  The  bark,  which  is 
bitter  and  astringent,  has  been  used  for  tanning  and  dyeing,  and  an 
extract  of  the  wood  is  said  to  be  used  in  dying  silk  black.  The  kernels 
of  the. nuts  possess  a  saponaceous  substance  in  such  abundance  that, 
when  powdered,  they  may  be  used  for  washing.  The  abundance  of 
starch  which  they  contain  is  pleasant  to  the  taste  and  nutritive,  after 
counteracting  the  bitter  principle  by  means  of  an  alkaline  solution. 
They  also  make  very  good  food  for  cattle,  sheep,  swine  and  horses. 

MEDICINAL  PROPERTIES.  —  "The  bark  has  been  used  as  a  substitute 
for  cinchona  bark  as  an  antiperiodic  for  use  in  intermittent  fevers  etc. 
Dose  half  an  ounce  in  twenty-four  hours  given  in  the  form  of  a  decoc- 


48  HOUGH'S  AMERICAN  WOODS. 

tion.     A  fixed  oil  from  the  kernels,  extracted  by  means  of  ether,  has 
been  used  in  France  as  a  topical  remedy  in  rheumatism."  * 

GENUS  ACER,  TOURN. 

Leaves  opposite,  simple,  palinately-veined,  5-  or  occasionally  3-lobed;  stipules 
none.  Flowers  small,  in  axillary  racemes  or  corymbs,  regular,  polygamo-dioecious, 
usually  unsymmetrical ;  pedicels  not  jointed;  sepals  5  (or  4-9),  more  or  less  united, 
colored;  petals  sometimes  wanting,  but,  when  present,  5  (or  4-9),  equal  and  furnished 
with  short  claws;  stamens,  commonly  8;  ovary  2-lobed,  formed  of  2  united  carpels, 
each  bearing  2  ovules,  only  one  of  which  commonly  attains  maturity;  styles  2,  long 
and  slender,  united  only  below  and  stigmatic  down  the  inside.  Fruit  a  double 
samara,  finally  separating  when  mature  and  ready  to  fall,  the  wings  strengthened 
by  a  rib  along  one  margin;  cotyledons,  long  and  thin. 

(Ancient  Latin  name  of  the  Maple.) 


7.  ACER  SACCHARINUM,  WANG. 

SUGAR  MAPLE,  HARD  MAPLE,  ROCK  MAPLE,  SUGAR-TREE. 
Ger.,  Zuker  Aliorn\  Fr.,  Erable  d  sucre;  Sp.,  Acer  de  azucar. 

SPECIFIC  CHARACTERS: — Leaves  more  or  less  cordate  at  the  base;  3-5-lobed  with 
rounded  sinuses  and  pointed  remotely  sinuate-toothed  lobes;  rather  pale  and  glau- 
cous, or  slightly  downy  on  the  veins  beneath.  Flowers  in  handsome  pendulous 
umbellate-corymbs,  with  long  thread-like  hairy  pedicels,  greenish-yellow  and 
appearing  with  the  leaves;  calyx  hairy  at  the  apex*;  petals  none.  Wings  of  the  fruit 
only  slightly  diverging.  A  variety  known  as  var.  nigrum,  the  Black  Maple  (con- 
sidered by  some  as  a  distinct  species,  A.  nigrum),  is  characterized  by  having  leaves 
with  closed  sinuses,  divaricate  lobes  and  rather  paler,  usually  slightly  pubescent 
under  surface;  wings  of  the  fruit  more  diverging. 

(Saccharinum  is  Latin  for  "sugar.") 

This  tree  when  growing  in  the  forest  sometimes  attains  a  height  of 
100  ft.  (30  m.)  or  more,  with  a  trunk  perhaps  50  ft.  (15  m.)  long  and  4 
ft.  (1.22  m.)  in  diameter  at  the  base.  In  such  situations  the  tops  are 
usually  unsymmetrical  and  the  trunks  often  more  or  less  crooked  and 
leaning.  Growing  in  the  open  it  has  a  very  different  appearance.  The 
tops  are  there  very  large  and  developed  with  great  symmetry  and  density 
of  foliage,  more  or  less  ovoid  in  outline  and  with  short,  thick  and 
straight  trunks. 

HABITAT. —  Canada  westward  as  far  as  the  shores  of  Lake  Superior, 
and  reaching  its  northern-most  limit  along  the  coast.  North-eastern 
United  States,  westward  to  the  Mississippi,  and  southward  along  the 
mountains  to  western  North  Carolina,  in  calcareous  and  loamy  soil,  often 
being  the  principal  if  not  the  exclusive  timber  of  tracts  of  forest.  In 
the  Adirondack  forests  we  have  noticed  this  tree  particularly,  and  there 
find  it  in  its  greatest  vigor  of  development. 

PHYSICAL  PROPERTIES. —  Wood  very  hard  —  hence  the  name  "Hard 
Maple "•  —  heavy,  close-grained,  compact  and  strong.  The  most  perfectly 

*U.  S.  Dispensatory,  15th  ed.,  pp.  1561-2. 


7.  ACER  SACCHARINUM —  SUGAR  MAPLE.  49 

seasoned  sap-wood  is  of  a  light,  slightly  yellowish  color;  the  heart-wood 
brownish  of  various  tints.  Specific  Gravity,  0.6912;  Percentage  of  Ash, 
0.54;  Relative  Approximate  Fuel  Value,  0.6875;  Coefficient  of  Elasticity, 
146108;  Modulus  of  Rupture,  1149;  Resistance  to  Longitudinal  Pres- 
sure, 619;  Resistance  to  Indentation,  257;  Weight  of  a  Cubic  Foot  in 
Pounds,  43.08. 

USES. —  This  is  one  of  the  most  useful  trees  of  Canada,  New  England 
and  the  Middle  States.  Its  timber  is  used  in  the  manufacture  of  furni- 
ture, for  interior  finishing,  flooring,  ship-building  —  especially  for  keels 
etc.,  where  great  durability  and  strength  are  required  —  shoe-lasts,  pegs, 
wooden-ware  etc.  Wooden-bowls  of  this  timber  are  considered  the  best 
in  market.  It  makes  excellent  fuel,  and  its  ashes  are  very  rich  in  alkali, 
yielding  much  of  the  potash  andperlash  of  commerce. 

Maple  Sugar  —  in  the  tastes  of  many  the  most  delicious  of  sweets — is 
almost  exclusively  the  product  of  this  tree,  the  very  small  quantity 
which  is  made  from  other  Maples,  being  in  proportion  very  insignificant. 
It  is  made  by  evaporing  the  sap  to  a  proper  consistency,  and  then  pour- 
ing into  moulds,  where  it  hardens  in  cake  form,  or  it  is  stirred  while 
cooling  so  as  to  make  a  granulated  sugar.  The  sap  is  procured  by  tap- 
ping the  trees,  usually  with  a  £  to  f  in.  auger,  in  early  spring,  some  weeks 
before  the  buds  begin  to  swell,  and  into  the  hole  a  spout  is  driven  to 
carry  the  sap  away  from  the  tree.  It  drops  from  the  spout  in  good 
weather,  at  the  rate  Of  from  30-100  or  more  drops  per  minute  into  a 
bucket  placed  to  catch  it.  It  is  then  clear  and  colorless,  seeming  quite 
like  water,  and  of  a  slightly  sweetish  flavor.  About  3  or  4  gallons  are 
usually  required  to  make  a  pound  of  sugar,  the  sweetness  of  the  sap 
varying  more  or  less  with  different  trees.  In  quality,  too,  if  not  also  in 
sweetness,  it  is  variable  in  the  same  tree,  being  better  early  in  the 
season  than  later.  Two  or  three  pounds  or  less  of  sugar  per  tree  is  the 
ordinary  average  yield  when  the  trees  are  standing  close  to  each  other, 
as  in  groves,  but  where  isolated  or  thinly  scattered,  so  that  the  .tops  are 
extensively  developed,  the  yield  is  much  larger.  In  the  small  sugar 
"bush"  or  "orchard"  (as  a  Maple  grove  used  for  sugar-making  is 
called)  of  about  seventy-five  trees,  which  we  have,  we  get  an  average 
yield  of  five  or  six  pounds  per  tree  in  good  seasons;  but  it  must  be 
borne  in  mind  that  the  trees  are  very  large  and  scattered,  having  fully 
developed  tops.  They  are  tapped  with  one  spout; — it  is  customary  with 
some  to  use  two  or  more.  A  few  select  trees  would  probably  yield  eight 
or  ten  pounds  each  in  a  season. 

Tapping  when  prudently  done  does  not  seriously  impair  the  health  of 
the  tree.  Naturally  it  kills  the  fiber  for  a  little  way,  directly  above  and 
below  the  place  of  tapping,  but  in  two  or  three  years  new  wood  forms 
7 


50  HOUGH'S  AMERICAN  WOODS. 

over  the  hole,  and  in  a  few  years  all  traces  are  obliterated  from  external 
view.  My  father  observes  *  that  "  upon  some  farms  in  Vermont  and 
northern  New  York,  more  profit  is  realized  from  a  maple  wood-land 
than  could  possibly  be  gained  upon  an  equal  area  by  any  agricultural 
.crop." 

NOTE. —  There  are  peculiar  freaks  sometimes  in  the  growth  of  timber, 
and  how  and  why  these  occur  are  interesting  problems  in  the  minds  of 
vegetable  physiologists,  thus  far  unsolved  as  they  probably  must  always 
remain.  Two  or  three  forms  of  these  freaks  occur  especially  —  though 
we  could  not  say  exclusively  —  in  the  timber  now  before  us,  and  so 
interesting  and  important  are  they  from  a  commercial  point  of  view,  and 
so  beautiful,  that  we  have  decided  to  exhibit  them  in  the  accompanying 
sections,  and  this  text  would  certainly  be  very  incomplete  without  men- 
tion of  so  important  timber  products. 

The  forms  to  which  we  refer  are  commonly  known  as  "  figures,"  and 
certain  ones,  such  as  the  "Blister"  "Birds-eye"  or  "Pin"  and 
et  Curley"  figures  much  more  frequently  occur  for  some  unknown 
reason  in  the  Maples  than  any  other  timber  with  which  we  are  acquainted. 
The  first  two  might  almost  be  said  to  be  peculiar  to  the  Hard  Maple,  and 
we  have  exhibited  them  along  with  the  plain  timber  of  that  species  —  as 
their  proper  place.  The  last  mentioned  figure,  Curley,  is  found  in 
the  Hard  Maple,  but  also  and  perhaps  even  more  commonly  in  the 
larger  Soft  Maples,  and  hence  has  been  left  to  be  shown  in  connection 
with  them  in  a  succeeding  part  of  this  work.  The  three  figures  are  often 
found  in  the  Hard  Maple,  more  or  less  mixed,  but  for  our  sections, 
standing  as  specimens  of  the  various  forms,  we  have  endeavored  to  select 
timbers  as  exclusively  representing  those  particular  forms  as  conveniently 
possible. 

In  the  untouched  tree,  as  it  occurs  in  the  forest,  it  takes  an  experienced 
eye  to  detect  a  figure,  so  slight  are  the  evidences  before  the  timber  is 
exposed.  To  such  an  eye  a  slight  pit  or  elevation  in  the  bark,  or  a  pecu- 
liar form  of  trunk  or  top,  means  a  great  deal.  With  such  a  man  of 
experience  (John  Brown,  Esq.,  of  Lowville,  N.  Y.),  who  gathers  this 
timber  quite  extensively  for  the  market,  it  has  been  our  pleasure  to  visit 
forests  occasionally,  in  quest  of  these  figured  timbers.  From  him  we 
have  learned  to  read  in  the  bark  of  the  trees  signs  which  we  never  knew 
if  we  ever  even  saw  before.  It  is  principally  from  that  schooling  that  we 
are  able  to  note  the  following  facts  concerning  the  figured  Maples  as  they 
appear  in  the  tree. 

The  BLISTER  MAPLE,  as  the  Blister  figure  of  the  Hard  Maple  is 
usually  called,  is  so  named  from  the  resemblance  which  its  polished  sur- 

*  Elements  of  Forestry,  p.  236. 


7.  ACER   SACCHARINUM —  SUGAR  MAPLE.  51 

face  gives  to  a  surface  covered  with  blisters.  Some  call  it  "Landscape  " 
Maple  from  the  suggestions  seen  in  it  of  a  mountainous  landscape,  as 
imagined  from  some  great  height.  The  name  is  certainly  very  applicable 
to  some  specimens,  as  the  fancied  representation  of  mountain  ranges, 
isolated  peaks  and  deep  valleys  is  very  complete.  A  purely  blister 
figure  is  the  rarest  of  the  three  varieties  above  mentioned.  One  might 
have  to  examine  many  hundreds  of  trees  before  finding  one  nicely  blis- 
tered. The  one  used  for  the  accompanying  sections  was  the  best  one 
found  in  the  examination  of  actually  thousands  of  trees  —  such  is  the 
rarity  of  a  purely  blister  figure.  Trees  are  more  often  found  where  it  is 
combined  with  the  bird's-eye  and  curly  figures. 

The  trunk  of  a  Blister  Maple  tree  usually  seems  massive  for  the  size  of 
the  top.  Upon  striking  off  a  piece  of  the  bark,  the  surface  of  the  wood 
is  found  to  be  covered  with  wart-like  eminences  quite  like  the  surface  of 
a  rough,  warty  squash.  The  inside  surface  of  the  bark  is  pitted  to  cor- 
respond with  the  prominences  of  the  wood.  The  figure  is  best  near  the 
bark,  growing  poorer  as  we  approach  the  heart;  and,  to  show  it  to  best 
advantage,  the  log  is  cut  into  veneering  by  means  of  a  huge  lathe, 
which  turns  off  a  great  shaving  the  length  of  the  log,  and  round  and 
round  it  until  the  heart  is  reached,  or  as  long  as  the  figure  lasts.  This 
gives  the  tangential  view  of  the  grain,  as  shown  in  the  sections.  The 
transverse  and  radial  views  are  rarely  if  ever  seen  in  the  commercial 
veneering,  but  are  interesting  here  as  showing,  from  all  sides  so  to  speak, 
the  peculiar  formation  of  the  figure. 

The  BIRD'S-EYE  MAPLE,  or  BIRD'S-EYE  FIGURE  OF  THE  HARD  MAPLE, 
is  so  called  from  the  appearance  of  birds'  eyes,  which,  in  a  certain  aspect, 
its  polished  surface  presents.  It  is  more  common  than  the  distinctly 
blister  figure,  and  much  that  we  see  has  the  latter  combined  with  it. 
It  is  rarely  if  ever  found,  so  far  as  our  experience  goes,  in  the  Soft- 
Maples.  In  the  tree  a  bird's-eye  figure  may  be  detected  by  characteristic 
pits  in  the  bark,  but  they  are  usually  inconspicuous.  The  top  of  the 
tree  often  seems  small  and  rather  scraggy  for  the  size  of  the  trunk.  On 
removal  of  the  bark  the  wood  is  found  to  be  deeply  pitted  —  instead  of 
warty,  as  in  the  Blister  Maple  —  and  in  the  bark  are  projections,  or  little 
nibs,  corresponding  with  the  pits  in  the  wood.  On  examination  of  a 
transverse  section  of  the  wood,-  we  find  that  these  pits  are  shown  in  the 
grain  nearly  to  the  center  of  the  tree,  and  present  the  appearance  of  so 
many  pins  pointing  in  toward  the  center  from  the  bark.  Hence  the 
name,  "Pin "  Maple,  which  is  sometimes  applied  to  this  form.  The 
"pins,"  when  cut  across  —  i.  e.,  in  a  section  tangential  to  the  grain  — 
as  seen  in  most  of  the  veneering,  present  the  "eyes,"  as  they  are  called 
from  something  of  a  resemblance  to  birds'  eyes. 


52  HOUGH'S  AMERICAN  WOODS. 

ORDER  ARALIACEJE :  GINSENG  FAMILY. 

Leaves  mostly  compound  and  alternate,  petioles  dilated  and  sometimes  thickened 
at  the  base;  stipules  none.  Flowers  small,  polypetalous  (or  rarely  apetalous),  often 
polygamous,  mostly  umbellate  and  the  umbels  solitary,  racemed  or  panicled;  calyx 
adherent  to  the  ovary;  its  small  limb  being  entire  or  toothed;  petals  5-10  valvate  (not 
inflected)  in  the  bud;  stamens  of  same  number  as  petals  and  alternate  with  them; 
styles  and  cells  of  the  ovary  usually  more  than  two  (3-5).  Fruit  baccate  or  drupa- 
ceous, 3-5-celled,  one  seed  in  each  cell;  albumen  fleshy. 

Represented  by  trees,  shrubs  and  herbs. 

GENUS  ARALIA,  TOURN. 

Leaves  compound  or  decompound.  Flowers  white  or  greenish;  calyx  with  teeth 
nearly  or  quite  obsolete;  petals  5,  spreading,  oblong  or  obovate,  epigynous,  decidu- 
ous; stamens  epigynous;  styles  mostly  distinct  and  slender,  in  sterile  flowers  short 
and  united.  Fruit  as  described  for  the  order. 

(Derivation  of  name  obscure.) 


8.  ARALIA  SPINOSA,  L. 

HERCULES'-CLUB,  ANGELICA-TREE,  TOOTHACHE-TREE. 

Ger.,  Dornige  Bergangelike;  Fr.,  Aralia  espineuse;  Sp.,  Aralia  espinosa. 

SPECIFIC  CHARACTERS: — Leaves  very  large,  pinnately  decompound,  with  ovate, 
pointed,  serrate,  sessile  leaflets,  pale  glaucous  beneath.  Flowers  (July,  August,) 
polygamous  or  perfect,  in  numerous  umbels,  and  these  forming  large,  compound 
panicles. 

(Spinosa,  a  Latin  word  meaning  thorny,  spiny.} 

A  small  tree  with  trunk  branches  and  petioles  furnished  with  spines. 
Often  hardly  more  than  a  shrub,  but  in  the  south,  and  occasionally  in 
favorable,  situations  in  the  north  attaining  the  dimensions  of  20  to  30 
ft.  (6  to  9  m.)  or  more  in  height,  and  12  in.  (30  cm.)  in  diameter  of 
trunk  at  base.  Bark  of  an  aromatic,  bitterish  and  somewhat  acrid  taste. 
The  tree  from  which  the  sections  of  this  species  were  cut  measured  27 
ft.  (8.22  m.)  in  height  and  30  in.  (76.2  cm.)  in  girth  of  trunk  at  base. 
It  grew  on  the  grounds  of  Dr.  Parker,  of  Ithaca,  N.  Y.,  and  must  be 
considered  a  very  large  tree  of  its  kind  for  so  northern  a  climate. 

HABITAT.— Found  native  from  Pennsylvania  to  Kentucky  and  south- 
ward, along  river  banks  and  in  damp  woods.  Is  grown  in  cultivation  out- 
side of  that  range. 

PHYSICAL  PROPERTIES. — Wood  light  and  brittle,  seeming,  when 
fresh,  of  an  almost  herbaceous  or  succulent  nature,  brownish-yellow  of 
various  tints. 

USES.— An  ornamental  shade-tree,  particularly  interesting  from  its 
curious,  very  large,  decompound  leaves.  The  timber  is  of  little  or  no 
value  for  manufacturing  purposes. 

MEDICINAL  PROPERTIES  of  this  species  are  "stimulant,  diaphoretic, 
and  an  infusion  of  the  recent  bark  is  said  to  be  emetic  and  cathartic. 


9.  NYSSA   MULTIFLORA  —  TUPELO.  53 

It  is  used  as  a  remedy  in  chronic  rheumatism  and  cutaneous  eruptions, 
and  for  relieving  rheumatic  pains  a  vinous  or  spirituous  infusion  of  the 
berries  is  said  to  be  remarkable.  A  similar  tincture  is  employed  with 
advantage  sometimes  in  cases  of  violent  colic,  and  the  pungency  of  this 
tincture  has  been  found  useful  in  relieving  toothache;  hence  the  name, 
in  some  localities,  Toothache-Tree."  * 

ORDER  CORNACEJE:  DOGWOOD  FAMILY. 

Leaves  opposite  (except  in  one  species),  simple,  mostly  entire.  Flowers  in  cymes, 
often  involucrate,  polypetalous  (exceptionally  apetalous),  4-numerous;  calyx-tube 
adherent  to  the  ovary,  its  limb  minute;  petals  valvate  in  the  bud,  oblong,  sessile, 
and,  with  the  stamens,  borne  on  an  epigynous  disk  in  the  perfect  flowers;  ovary 
1-celled,  bearing  a  single  suspended  ovule;  style  single,  somewhat  club-shaped. 
Fruit  a  1-2-seeded  baccate  drupe,  bearing  the  persistent  limb  of  the  calyx. 

Trees,  shrubs  or  rarely  herbs,  with  bitter,  tonic  bark. 

GENUS  NYSSA,  L. 

Leaves  mostly  entire,  but  sometimes  angulate-toothed,  and  mostly  at  the  ends  of 
the  branchlets.  Flowers  greenish  and  appearing  with  the  leaves,  dioscious  or 
polygamous,  clustered  or  rarely  solitary  on  axillary  peduncles.  Staminate  flowers 
more  numerous,  and  in  these  the  calyx-tube  is  small,  limb  truncate  or  5-parted; 
petals  usually  5,  small,  oblong  and  soon  deciduous  or  wanting;  stamens  5-12,  com- 
monly 10,  inserted  outside  of  a  convex  glandular  disk,  filaments  slender;  anthers 
short;  ovary  none.  Pistillate  flowers  much  larger  than  the  staminate;  calyx-tube 
oblong,  adherent  to  the  ovary,  limb  a  mere  rim  as  with  staminate  flowers;  petals 
2-5,  as  in  staminate  flowers,  or  wanting;  ovary  1-celled,  style  large,  revolute,  stig- 
matic  down  one  side.  Fruit  an  ovoid  or  oblong,  one-seeded  drupe,  with  a  striated 
stone. 


9.  NYSSA  MULTIFLORA,  WANG. 

TUPELO,   PEPPERIDGE,   BLACK  YELLOW  on  SOUR  GUM,  GUM-TKEE. 
Ger.,  Saner  Gummibaum;  Fr.,  Gommier  muUiflore;  Sp.,  Tupelo. 

SPECIFIC  CHARACTERS: — Leaves  2-5  in.  (5-13  cm.)  long,  oval  or  obovate,  usually 
acuminate,  but  sometimes  obtuse,  at  each  end,  entire  and  of  firm  texture,  glabrous 
or  villous-pubescent  when  young,  at  least  on  the  petiole  midrib  and  margins,  shining 
above  when  old,  changing  early  in  autumn  to  a  bright  crimson.  Fertile  flowers 
(April,  June)  2-8,  clustered  at  the  end  of  a  slender  peduncle;  style  revolute.  Fruit 
(September)  an  ovoid,  bluish-black  drupe  (from  two  to  four  only  of  a  flower  cluster, 
usually  maturing),  about  6  lines  in  length,  with  a  scanty  flesh  of  acid  taste  and  a 
large  stone  longitudinally  striated. 

(The  specific  name,  multiflora,  is  the  Latin  for  "  many-floicered.") 

A  tree  of  very  variable  aspect  and  medium-size,,  though  it  is  said  to 
sometimes  attain,  in  southern  United  States,  the  height  of  120  ft. 
(36.5  m.)  and  4  ft.  (1/22  m.)  in  thickness  of  trunk  at  base.  It  is  usually 
copiously  supplied  with  branches,  which  grow  out  horizontally,  giving 
the  tree  a  handsome  and  peculiar  appearance. 

*  U.  8.  Dispensatory  15th  ed..  pp.  1575-6. 


54  HOUGH'S  AMERICAN  WOODS. 

HABITAT. —  Eastern  United  States,  though  sparingly  in  the  north 
and  there  not  attaining  its  full  size,  growing  in  rather  damp  soil,  and  in 
the  south  iu  swamps  and  marshes. 

PHYSICAL  PROPERTIES. —  Wood  rather  heavy,  soft,  very  strong  and 
tough  owing  to  the  interlacing  of  its  fibers,  which  makes  it  very  unwedg- 
able;  sap-wood  light  yellow  with  a  slightly  brownish  tint;  heart-wood 
light  brown.  Specific  Gravity,  0.6356;  Percentage  of  Ash,  0.52;  Relative 
Approximate  Fuel  Value,  0.6323;  Coefficient  of  Elasticity,  81932;  Modu- 
lus of  Rupture,  830;  Resistance  to  Longitudinal  Pressure,  468;  Resist- 
ance to  Indentation,  196;  Weight  of  a  Cubic  Foot  in  Pounds,  39.61. 

USES. —  Owing  to  the  great  difficulty  in  splitting  and  working  this 
timber,  it  is  useful  for  but  comparatively  few  purposes,  and  those  such 
as  require  that  quality.  It  is  used  in  the  manufacture  of  hubs  for 
wagon  wheels,  rollers,  ox-yokes,  hatters'  blocks,  sometimes  for  bowls 
and  other  similar  wooden-ware,  etc.  It  is  useful,  too,  for  pump-logs, 
aqueduct  pipes,  etc.,  being  so  tough  that  it  requires  no  hoops.  It  is  said 
to  be  extensively  used  for  that  purpose  at  the  Syracuse  salt  works. 

MEDICINAL  PROPERTIES. —  None  are  ascribed  to  this  species. 

ORDER  OLEACE.ZE:  OLIVE  FAMILY. 

Leaves  opposite  and  single  or  pinnately  compound.  Flowers  monopetalous  (rarely 
apetalous  or  polypetalous);  calyx  4-cleft,  toothed  or  entire,  or  sometimes  wanting; 
corolla  regular,  4-cleft  (or  sometimes  4-petalous,  or  even  wanting  altogether);  sta- 
mens only  2  (or  rarely  4);  ovary  2-cetled  with  usually  2  suspended  ovules  in  each 
cell.  Fruit  fleshy  or  capsular,  containing  4  (or  fewer)  seeds. 

Represented  by  trees  and  shrubs. 

GENUS  FRAXINUS,  TOURN. 

Leaves  petiolcd,  oddly-pinnate,  with  3-15  toothed  or  entire  leaflets.  Flowers  small, 
racemed  or  panicled,  from  the  axils  of  the  last  year's  leaves,  the  American  repre^ 
sentatives  dioscious  and  apetalous;  calyx  and  corolla,  when  present,  as  described  for 
the  order;  anthers  large,  linear  or  oblong;  style  single,  stigma  2-cleft.  Frit  it  a 
1-2-celled,  flattened  samara,  winged  at  the  apex,  1-2  pendulous  seeds  in  each  cell. 

(The  ancient  Latin  name  of  the  Ash;  supposed  to  be  from  the  Greek  cppa.£,i<s,  a 
separation,  alluding  to  the  facility  with  which  the  wood  splits.) 


10.  FRAXINUS  AMERICANA,  L. 

WHITE  ASH. 

Ger.,    Amerikanische    Esche;    Fr.,    Frene    Americain;    Sp.,    Fresno 

Americano. 

SPECIFIC  CHARACTERS:  —  Leaves  pinnately  compound  with  7-9  leaflets,  which  are 
petiolate,  ovate  or  lance-oblong,  pointed,  entire  or  obscurely  toothed,  pale  shining 
above,  smooth  or  pubescent  beneath;  petioles  glabrous;  branch  lets  smooth,  gray, 
and  buds  rust-colored,  somewhat  velvety.  Flowers  (April,  May)  in  loose,  axillary, 
compound  panicles,  dioecious,  apetalous,  calyx  minute  and  persistent.  Frvit  (August, 
September)  a  samara,  terete  and  marginless  at  the  base,  extending  above  into  a 
lanceolate,  oblauceolate,  or  wedge  linear,  often  slightly  emarginate  wing. 


11.  ULMUS  FULVA  —  SLIPPERY  ELM.  55 

A  tree  of  good  size,  though  not  often  over  100  ft.  (30  m.)  in  height, 
with  a,  trunk  3  ft.  (0.91  m.)  in  diameter. 

HABITAT. —  Canada  and  United  States  generally,  east  of  the  Missis- 
sippi river  and  south  nearly  or  quite  to  the  gulf  coast.  It  is  said  to 
reach  its  greatest  development  in  the  Ohio  river  basin. 

PHYSICAL  PROPERTIES. —  Wood  rather  heavy,  very  strong  and  springy, 
hard,  compact;  sap-wood,  when  well  seasoned,  nearly  white;  heart-wood 
of  a  light  reddish  color,  usually  more  or  less  mottled.  Specific  Gravity, 
0.6543;  Percentage  of  Ash,  0.42;  Relative  Approximate  Fuel  Value, 
0.6516;  Coefficient  of  Elasticity,  101668;  Modulus  of  Rupture,  861; 
Resistance  to  Longitudinal  Pressure,  463;  Resistance  to  Indentation, 
171;  Weight  of  a  Cubic  Foot  in  Pounds,  40.78. 

USES. — A  very  useful  timber  in  the  manufacture  of  wheels,  axles, 
shafts,  and  frames  for  wagons,  carriages  and  cutters,  for  agricultural 
implements,  oars,  sweeps,  etc.,  where  great  strength  and  stiffness  or 
springiness  are  required . 

MEDICINAL  PROPERTIES. —  It  is  noted  by  Mr.  Geo.  B.  Emerson*  that 
"an  Ash  leaf  rubbed  upon  the  swellings  caused  by  mosquito  bites  and  bee 
stings  will  remove  the  itching  and  soreness  immediately,  and  it  is 
reported  by  some  that  the  leaf  will  also  give  relief  in  cases  of  snake  bite. 
A  decoction  of  the  leaves  is  said  to  be  an  antidote  to  the  poison  of  lamb- 
kill  (Kalmia  angustifolio),  when  taken  by  lambs." 

ORDER  ULMACE^E:f  ELM  FAMILY. 

Leaves  simple,  alternate;  stipules  caducous.  Flowers  perfect  or  polygamous  by 
abortion,  apetalous,  in  loose  clusters,  not  catkins;  calyx  somewhat  bell-shaped,  free 
from  the  ovary;  stamens  springing  from  the  calyx,  usually  as  many  as  its  lobes  and 
opposite  them;  filaments  straight,  ovary  1-2-celled  with  a  single  suspended  ovule  in 
each  cell;  styles  or  stigmas  two.  Fruit,  a  samara  or  drupe  with  suspended  seed; 
no  albumen. 

Represented  by  trees,  rarely  shrubs. 

GENUS  ULMUS,  L. 

Leaves  short-petioled,  usually  rather  rough,  markedly  straight-veined,  unequally 
or  obliquely  heart-shaped  or  abrupt  at  the  base;  stipules  small,  caducous.  Flowers 
appearing  before  the  leaves  in  our  species,  purplish  or  yellowish,  apetalous,  polyga- 
mous, in  lateral  clusters  or  racemes;  calyx  4-9-cleft;  stamens  4-9,  with  long,  slender 
filaments;  ovary  2-celled,  or  rarely  1-celled,  compressed;  styles  2,  short  and  diverg- 
ing. Fruit  a  samara  with  a  broad,  membranous  margin,  1-celled  by  obliteration, 
an,d  1-seeded;  seed  with  no  albumen,  large  cotyledons  and  straight  embryo. 

(Ulmus  is  the  ancient  Latin  name  of  the  Elm.) 

ii.  ULMUS  FULVA,  MICHX. 

SLIPPERY  ELM,  RED  ELM,  MOOSE  ELM. 

Ger.,  Rothe  Ulme;  Fr.,   Orme  gras;  Sp.,   Olmo  Colorado. 

SPECIFIC  CHARACTERS: — Leaves  ovate-oblong,  taper-pointed,  unequally  cordate  at 
the  base,  rather  irregularly  doubly-serrate,  very  rough  above  and  slightly  rough 

Trees  and  Shrub-  of  Massachusetts,  2d  ed.. 


*  Trees  ana  shrub,  of  Massachusetts,  2d  ed..  pp.  ai'j-aau. 

t  Ranked  by  some  authors  as  a  sub-order  of  the  order  Urticacece. 


50  lluL'<;iiV  AMKRICAN    WUODS. 

or  soft  downy  beneath,  large,  4-8  in.  long,  and  rugose.,  fragrant  \vlnlf  drying; 
lrat'-l>ud>  large  and.  before  expanding,  roverrrl  with  a  soft,  rust-colored  down; 
branchlets  downy.  Fdnrtrx  uMarch,  April)  nearly  sessile;  calyx  downy,  of  7-9 
lobes;  stamens  7-J),  short,  reddish.  Fruit  (.May,  June)  nearly  orbicular,  about  8  lines 
(1.9  cm.)  wide,  slightly  if  at  all  ciliatc  and  with  pubescent  cell. 

(The  specific.1  name,  f>tlc<i,  is  a  Latin  word  meaning  reddish-yellow,  fulvous.) 

A  tret1  <>t'  medium  size,  rarely  of  greater  height  that  ?0  ft.  (2\  m.)  or 
of  greater  thickness  of  trunk  than  2  ft.  (0.01  in.),  and  with  very  muci- 
laginous inner  bark. 

HAUITAT.  —  Southern  Canada  and  north-eastern  United  Stales,  west- 
ward as  far  as  Dakota,  and  southward  nearly  or  quite  to  the  Gulf  States 
growing  particularly  in  rich  and  rather  low  grounds. 

PHYSICAL  PROPERTIES. —  Wood  heavy,  strong,  compact  and  tough; 
heart-wood  very  largo,  of  brownish-red  color;  sap-wood  thin  and  whitish. 
S/nrtfic  Gravity,  0.0050;  Percentage  of  A  $li,  0.83;  Rch/tiw  Approximate 
Fuel  Value,  0.0808;  Coefficient  of  Elasticity,  95^74;  Modulus  of  Rupture, 
809;  Resistance  to  Longitudinal  Prex*un\  530;  Remittance  to  Indenta- 
tion, 150;  Wei <j lit  of  a  Cubic  Foot  in  Pound*,  43.35. 

USES. —  This  timber  makes  excellent  fence  rails.  It  is  used  extensively 
in  some  localities  in  the  manufacture  of  the  running-gear  of  wagons,  for 
sleigh-runners  etc.  Its  toughness  and  great  ilexibility  when  boiled  or 
>st earned  makes  it  one  of  the  very  best  of  timbers  for  the  ribs  of  canoes 
and  skiifs. 

A  great  item  of  value  in  this  tree  lies  in  its  inner  bark,  which  bears  a 
copious  mucilage.  Aside  from  its  important  uses  in  medicine  it  is  put 
occasionally  to  other  uses  as  the  following:  —  It  is  in  a  measure  nutritious, 
and  has  been  known  to  .support  life  in  cases  of  scarcity  of  rood.  We  are 
told  by  Mr.  Cl.  B.  Hmerson,*  that  during  the  War  of  1812,  the  troops 
;ilong  the  Canadian  frontier  used  it  as  food  for  their  horses  when  forage 
was  scarce.  It  is  reported  on  the,  authority  of  Dr.  C.  W.  Wright.!  of 
Cincinnati,  that  "Slippery-Elm  bark  has  the  property  of  preserving  fatty 
substances  from  rancidit  v,  a  fact  derived  originally  from  the  Indians, 
who  prepared  bears'  fat  by  melting  it  with  the  bark,  in  the  proportion  of 
a  drachm  of  the  latter  to  a  pound  of  the  former,  keeping  them  heated 
together  for  a  few  minutes,  and  then  straining  olf  the  fat."  Or.  Wright 
tried  tin-  same  process  with  butter  and  lard,  and  found  them  to  remain 
perfect  Iv  sweet  for  a  long  time. 

MEDICINAL  PROI-ERTI  ES.—  The  inner  bark  is  used  extensively  as  a. 
demulcent  drink  in  the  form  of  an  infusion,  especially  recommended  in 
dvspepsia.  diarrlnea  and  diseases  of  the  urinary  passages.  It  lias  also 
been  employed  in  cases  of  cutaneous  eruptions,  and  cases  are  reported  of 
the  riddance  of  tapeworms  by  chewing  and  swallowing  the  bark  of  this 


12.  CELTIS  OCCIDENTALS  —  SUGARBERRY.  57 

elm.  As  an  emollient  in  the  form  of  poultices  etc.,  for  inflammations  it 
is  also  largely  used,  being  prepared  by  simply  treating  the  dried  bark, 
either  powdered  or  in  a  crude  state,  with  hot  water  so  as  to  be  easily 
formed  into  a  poultice.* 

GENUS  CELTIS,  TOUBN. 

Leaves  pointed,  somewhat  oblique  at  the  base.  Flowers  appearing  with  the  leaves, 
greenish,  axillary,  monoeciously  polygamous;  the  staminate  flowers  in  little  fascicles 
or  racemes;  calyx  6-parted,  stamens  6;  the  fertile  flowers  solitary  or  in  pairs,  peduncu- 
late, calyx  5-parted,  stamens  5,  ovary  1-celled,  styles  2,  stigmas  awl-shaped,  elongated, 
recurved.  Fruit  a  globular  drupe,  1-seeded;  seed  containing  a  little  gelatinous 
albumen,  embryo  curved,  cotyledons  crumpled. 

(Celtis  is  the  ancient  Greek  "name  of  the  Lotus.) 

12.  CELTIS  OCCIDENTALIS,  L. 

SUGARBERRY,    HACKEE KRY,    NETTLE-TREE,   FALSE   ELM. 

Ger.,  Abendldndischer  Ziiryelbaum;   Fr.,  Mioocoulier  occidentale;   Sp., 

Almez  Americano. 

SPECIFIC  CHARACTERS:  —  Leaves  quite  various  in  the  different  varieties  but  usually 
ovate,  markedly  taper-pointed  from  a  broad,  usually  somewhat  heart-shaped  or  trun- 
cate unequal  or  oblique  base,  reticulated,  sharply  serrate  except  sometimes  near  the 
base,  more  or  less  rough  above  and  pubescent  at  least  when  young  beneath. 
Flowers  (April,  May)  solitary,  small,  white,  with  peduncles  once  or  twice  as  long  as 
the  leaf  stem;  sepals  triangular-ovate,  erect.  Fruit  a  small,  solitary,  round,  sweet, 
edible  drupe,  dark  purple  when  fully  mature. 

(Occidentalis,  a  Latin  adjective  meaning  western.) 

A  tree  usually  of  medium  size  and  very  variable  aspect;  sometimes  like 
that  of  the  Elm  with  spreading  top;  then,  as  often  in  northern  New 
York,  broadly  ovate  in  outline rwith  numerous  slender  but  long  hori- 
zontal branches.  In  most  favorable  conditions  of  soil  and  climate  it 
attains  the  height  of  100  ft.  (30  m.)  or  more,  with  a  trunk  5  ft.  (1.52  m.) 
in  diameter.  As  the  opposite  extreme,  it  is  found,  in  variety  pumila,  as 
scarcely  more  than  a  shrub.  Thus  we  see  it  is  a  very  polymorphous 
species  and  considering  all  its  varieties  of  extensive 

HABITAT. —  Southern  Canada  and  the  United  States  generally  east  of  the 
Mississippi  river,  and  said  to  attain  its  greatest  development  in  the  Mis- 
sissippi basin.  One  form  with  small,  thick  and  prominently  reticulate- 
veined  leaves  is  found  in  south-western  and  western  United  States.  The 
tree  grows  particularly  along  river  flats,  rarely,  if  ever,  forming  groves 
exclusive  of  other  timber,  or  even  of  sufficient  abundance  to  be  generally 
known  by  casual  observers. 

PHYSICAL  PROPERTIES. — Wood  rather  heavy,  coarse-grained,  not  very 
hard  or  strong,  compact,  taking  a  good  satiny  polish,  heart-wood 
usually  brown,  of  various  shades,  often  quite  dark;  sap-wood  light  and  oi 

*U.  8.  Dispensatory,  15th  ed.,  pp.  1487-8. 
8 


58  HOUGH'S  AMERICAN  WOODS. 

a  slightly  yellowish  or  greenish  tint.  Specific  Gravity,  0.7287;  Percentage 
of  Ash,  1.09;  Relative  Approximate  Fuel  Value,  0.7208;  Coefficient  of 
Elasticity,  68527;  Modulus  of  Rupture,  789;  Resistance  to  Longitudinal 
Pressure,  421;  Resistance  to  Indentation.  217;  Weight  of  a  Cubic  Foot  in 
Pounds,  45.41. 

USES.  —  Owing  to  the  general  scarcity  of  this  tree,  little  can  be  said 
of  its  uses.  It  seems  to  be  nowhere  abundant  enough  to  enter  largely 
into  any  particular  branch  of  manufacture.  It  is  sometimes  used  by 
wheel- wrightg,  etc.,  as  a  substitute  for  Elm,  with  which  it  is  allied  in 
physical  properties  as  well  as  botanically. 

MEDICINAL  PROPERTIES. —  So  far  as  known,  this  species  is  of  no 
medicinal  value. 

NOTE. —  Such  is  the  general  scarcity  of  these  trees  that  they  are  usually 
looked  upon,  by  the  people  at  large,  as  strangers  wherever  found,  and 
sometimes  they  become  trees  of  considerable  note. 

One  of  this  nature  is  found  near  the  New  York  Central  railroad, 
between  Palatine  Bridge  and  Spraker's,  just  north  of  the  track  and 
within  the  railroad  enclosure.  Ordinarily  it  would  have  been  cut  down 
when  the  road  was  laid,  but  the  people  residing  in  its  vicinity  petitioned 
the  railroad  authorities  to  let  it  remain.  The  request  was  granted,  and 
the  tree  still  stands,  famous  far  and  near  in  that  section  and  to  the  rail- 
road employes  as  the  "Unknown  Tree,"  Before  visiting  this  tree  to 
ascertain  its  identity,  my  father  predicted  that  I  would  find  it  a  rep- 
resentative of  this  species,  remarking  that  he  had  several  times,  in  his 
travels  here  and  there  in  this  country,  been  shown  to  what  the  people 
called  (i  unknown  trees/'  and  in  every  case  had  found  them  to  be  of  this 
species.  I  found  him  right  in  his  prediction  regarding  this  tree.  It 
proved  to  be  a  fine  specimen  of  its  kind,  10  ft.  8  in.  (3.25  m.)  in  girth, 
two  ft.  (0.60  m.)  from  the  ground. 

We  know  of  two  representatives  of  this  species  on  the  Black  river 
bank,  in  northern  New  York,  having  variegated  foliage. 

ORDER  FLATANACE-ffi:  PLANE-TREE  FAMILY. 

Leaves  simple,  alternate,  pal mately- veined  and  lobed,  with  sheathing  scarious 
stipules.  Flowers  monoecious,  destitute  of  both  calyx  and  corolla,  in  separate  and 
globular  heads.  Sterile  flowers  numerous;  stamens  intermixed  with  small,  club- 
shaped  scales;  filaments  very  short;  anthers  2-celled,  linear.  Fertile  flowers:  pistils 
intermixed  with  little  scales;  ovaries  inversely  pyramidal;  style  simple,  awl-shaped, 
stigmatic  on  one  side.  Fruit  a  small,  club-shaped,  coriaceous  nutlet,  with  bristly, 
tawny  down  at  its  base,  and  containing  a  single,  pendulous,  albuminous  seed. 

Represented  by  trees. 

GENUS  PLATANUS,  L, 

Characters  as  given  for  the  order,  this  being  the  only  genus. 

(The  name  Platanus  is  from  the  Gk.,  nXarvt,  broad,  probably  in  reference  to  the 
leaves.) 


13.  PLATANUS   OCCIDEKTALIS  —  SYCAMORE.  59 

13,  PLATANUS  OCCIDENTALIS,  L. 

SYCAMORE,  PLANE-TREE,  BUTTONWOOD,  BUTTON-BALL  TREE. 

Ger.,  Amerikanische  Platane;   Fr.,  Platane   Americain;    Sp.,  Platano 

de  America. 

SPECIFIC  CHARACTERS: — Leaves  large,  usually  truncate  at  the  base,  angulate-lobed 
and  commonly  serrate-toothed,  the  lobes  short  and  sharp-pointed;  leaves  and  leaf- 
stems  tomentbse  when  young;  stipules  conspicuous,  obliquely  ovate;  base  of  the 
petiole  concave,  covering  the  axillary  bud.  Flowers  appear  usually  in  May;  fertile 
heads  solitary,  suspended  on  a  long  peduncle,  and,  persisting  long  after  the  leaves 
have  fallen,  give  the  tree  a  characteristic  appearance  in  winter. 

This  is  the  largest  (though  not  the  tallest)  deciduous  tree  of  our 
American  forests,  sometimes  attaining  the  enormous  proportions  of 
120  ft.  (37  m.)  in  height,  and  14  ft.  (4.27  m.)  or  more  in  diameter  of 
trunk  at  base.  The  older  bark  of  the  trunk  and  large  branches  flakes 
off  in  brittle,  irregular  scales,  leaving  the  surface  of  a  whitish  or  grayish 
and  more  or  less  mottled  color,  especially  in  winter.  Farther  up,  the 
smaller  branches  are  often  remarkable  for  their  smoothness  and  white- 
ness, seeming  quite  as  though  white- washed.  "This  striking  feature 
in  winter  enables  one  to  observe  the  course  of  a  stream  for  a  great  dis- 
tance by  the  line  of  Sycamores  along  its  banks."*  The  branches  are 
greenish  or  brownish  in  color. 

HABITAT. —  Southern  Canada,  New  England,  and  southward  nearly 
to  the  gulf  coast,  and  westward  to  Kansas  and  Nebraska,  reaching,  per- 
haps, its  greatest  development  along  the  Ohio  river  and  its  tributaries. 
It  is  partial  to  the  river  banks  and  localities  where  the  soil  is  moist,  often 
growing  in  or  very  close  to  the  rocky  beds  of  small  streams  which  dry 
up  in  the  summer  season. 

PHYSICAL  PROPERTIES. —  Wood  heavy,  rather  hard  and  compact, 
though  not  very  strong,  difficult  to  split  and  work;  of  a  reddish-brown 
color  with  light  and  somewhat  yellowish  sap-wood.  Specific  Gravity, 
0.5678;  Percentage  of  Ash,  0.46;  Relative  Approximate  Fuel  Value,  0.5652; 
Coefficient  of  Elasticity,  86402;  Modulus  of  Rupture,  635;  Resistance  to 
Longitudinal  Pressure,  450;  Resistance  to  Indentation,  165;  Weight  of  a 
Cubic  Foot  in  Pounds,  35.39. 

USES. —  This  timber,  probably  principally  on  account  of  the  difficulty 
of  working  it,  is  not  of  extensive  use  in  manufacturing.  It  makes  good 
fuel  when  dry,  and  is  used  to  some  considerable  extent  in  the  manufac- 
ture of  fruit  baskets,  tobacco  boxes,  etc.,  and  to  some  extent  for  cabinet- 
ware.  When  cut  with  the  "quarter"  grain  (in  radial  section),  pieces  of 
this  timber  give  a  very  pretty  effect  in  wooden  mosaics  and  cabinet  work. 

*  Elements  of  Forestry,  by  Franklin  B.  Hough,  p.  252. 


60  HOUGH'S  AMERICAN  WOODS. 

For  butchers'  blocks,  etc.,  where  a  timber  is  needed  that  will  not  split, 
it  is  admirable.  When  sawn  into  lumber  it  is  said  to  warp  badly. 

A  by  no  means  unimportant  use  of  this  tree  is  its  value  as  a  shade-tree 
along  public  walks,  etc.,  as  it  seems  to  endure  the  smoke  and  dust  of 
cities  better  than  most  of  our  trees,  is  of  rapid  growth  and  casts  a  toler- 
ably dense  shade. 

MEDICINAL  PROPERTIES. —  So  far  as  known,  none  are  possessed  by 
this  species. 

NOTE. —  My  father  once  saw,  in  the  state  of  Michigan,  a  fine  tree  of 
this  species,  noted  in  the  locality  as  the  "Crane-Tree"  from  the  fact  that 
it  was  the  home  of  a  colony  of  Great  Blue  Herons  (Ardea  lierodias,  L.) 
or  "  Cranes,"  as  they  are  often  wrongly  called.  In  its  top  he  counted 
some  thirty  of  their  nests. 

ORDER  JUGLANDACE2E:  WALNUT  FAMILY. 

Leaves  alternate,  pinnate  and  without  stipules.  Flowers  monoecious  and  apetalous, 
except  in  some  cases  in  the  fertile  flowers.  Sterile  flowers  in  catkins  with  an  irregu- 
lar calyx  adnate  to  the  scale  of  the  catkin.  Fertile  flowers  solitary  or  in  small  clus- 
ters, with  calyx  regularly  3-5-lobed,  adherent  to  the  incompletely  2-4-celled,  but  1- 
ovuled  ovary.  Fruit  a  sort  of  dry  drupe  (a  trynia),  with  a  fibrous  and  more  or  less 
fleshy  and  coriaceous  outer  coat  (shuck)  very  astringent  to  the  taste,  a  hard,  bony 
inner  coat  (shell),  and  a  2— 4-lobed  seed,  which  is  orthotropous,  with  thick,  oily  and 
often  corrugated  cotyledons  and  no  albumen. 

All  representatives  of  the  order  are  trees. 

GENUS  JUGLANS,  L. 

Leaves  odd-pinnate,  with  numerous  serrate  leaflets;  leaf -buds  few-scaled  or  nearly 
naked.  Sterile  floicers  in  long,  simple,  imbricated,  axillary  catkins  from  the  wood  of 
the  preceding  year;  calyx  unequally  3-6-cleft;  stamens  12-40  with  very  short  and  free 
filaments.  Fertile  flowers  several  in  a  cluster  or  solitary  at  the  ends  of  the  branches; 
calyx  4-toothed  and  bearing  in  its  sinuses  4  small  petals;  styles  2,  very  short;  stigmas 
2,  somewhat  club-shaped  and  fringed.  Fruit  drupaceous  with  a  fibrous  and  spongy, 
somewhat  fleshy,  indehiscent  epicarp  (shuck),  and  a  rough  irregularly  furrowed  endo- 
carp  (shell);  embryo  edible  and  wholesome. 

Trees  with  strong- scented  resinous-aromatic  bark  and  a  pith  which  separates  into 
thin  transverse  disks.  (Juglans  is  contracted  from  Latin  Jovisglans,  the  nut  of  Jove.) 


14.  JUGLANS  CINEREA,  L. 

BuTTER^tJT,  WHITE  WALKUT,  OIL-NUT. 
Ger.,  Aschc/rauer  Wallnussbaum;  Fr.,  Noyer  cendr^j  Sp.,  Nogal  gris. 

SPECIFIC  CHARACTERS: — Leaflets  (15-17),  oblong-lanceolate,  pointed,  rounded  some- 
what unequally  at  the  base,  pubescent  especially  beneath;  petioles  and  branchlets 
clammy  pubescent.  Flowers  (April,  May)  as  described  above,  for  order  and  genus. 
Fruit  (Sept.)  very  clammy  pubescent  and  of  rather  pleasant  odor  when  fresh, 
oblong,  pointed,  2-celled  at  base;  the  nut-shell  deeply  and  irregularly  furrowed 
leaving  rough  and  ragged  ridges;  embryo  very  rich  in  oil  and  of  delicious  flavor. 

A  tree  not  usually  growing  tall  (except  when  forced  to  in  the  forests, 
and  then  not  to  a  great  height),  but  of  very  wide  spread,  the  trunk 


14.    JUGLANS    CINEREA  —  BUTTERNUT.  61 

branching  low  down  and  sending  out  long  horizontal  branches.  It  is 
occasionally  80  ft.  (24  m.)  in  height,  but  usually  considerably  less,  and 
with  a  trunk.  3  to  4  ft.  (0.90  to  1.20  m.)  in  diameter.  Its  short  and 
wide-spread  habit  is  very  characteristic  when  growing  in  the  open  fields. 

HABITAT. —  Southern  Canada  and  north-eastern  United  States,  west- 
ward to  Minnesota  and  Iowa,  and  southward  to  Maryland  or  farther 
among  the  Alleganies.  Grows  in  rich  calcareous  and  not  very  moist  soil. 

PHYSICAL  PROPERTIES. —  Wood  not  strong,  soft,  compact,  easily 
worked,  taking  a  satiny  and  beautiful  polish.  Color  light  grayish-brown 
with  white  sap-wood,  which  is  very  thin  in  comparison  with  the  colored 
heart.  Specific  Gravity,  0.4036;  Percentage  of  Ash,  0.51;  Relative 
Approximate  Fuel  Value,  0.4065;  Coefficient  of  Elasticity,  81253;  Modu- 
lus of  Rupture,  597;  Resistance  to  Longitudinal  Pressure,  392;  Resistance 
to  Indentation,  90;  Weight  of  a  Cubic  Foot  in  Pounds,  25.46. 

USES. —  This  timber  though  not  of  as  high  price  in  market  as  the 
allied  Black  Walnut,  is  nevertheless  of  great  value  for  interior  finishing, 
as  wainscotings  etc.  It  is  to  some  extent  used  in  furniture,  and  occa- 
sionally for  other  purposes. 

Of  quite  as  much  value  as  the  timber  of  this  tree  is  its  fruit,  the  nuts, 
which  are  gathered  at  about  the  time  of  the  first  frosts,  and  when 
properly  dried  are  sweet  and  delicious.  An  expressed  oil  from  these 
nuts  is  a  drying  oil  very  similar  in  properties  to  the  linseed  oil.  The 
nuts  gathered  when  young  and  succulent,  at  about  the  beginning  of 
June,  make  excellent  pickles,  after  removing  the  clammy  pubescence  by 
scalding  and  then  rubbing  with  a  coarse  cloth. 

The  bark  and  the  nut  shucks  are  sometimes  used  for  dyeing  purposes, 
and  from  them,  according  to  Mr.  Emerson,  black,  brown,  purple  and 
fawn-color  have  been  produced.  The  sap  of  this  tree  is  quite  rich  in 
sugar,  but  not  equal  in  value  to  that  of  the  Sugar  Maple. 

MEDICINAL  PROPERTIES. —  The  inner  bark,  particularly  of  the  root,  is 
officinally  recognized  as  of  value  in  medicine  as  a  safe  cathartic,  very 
mild  in  its  action.  It  is  said  that  it  was  extensively  employed  by  the 
physicians  connected  with  the  army  in  the  Revolutionary  war.  Dysen- 
tery is  a  complaint  in  which  it  is  particularly  indicated.  It  is  given  in 
the  form  of  a  decoction  or  extract,  the  latter  being  officinal  and  usually 
preferred.  The  leaves,  which  are  acrid,  have  been  used  when  powdered 
as  a  rubefacient  and  sometimes  as  a  substitute  for  Spanish  flies.* 

ORDER  CUPULIFI3R.7E :  OAK  FAMILY. 

Learns  alternate,  simple,  straight-veined;  the  stipules,  forming  the  bud-scales, 
deciduous.  Flowers  monoecious,  apetalous.  Sterile  flowers  in  clustered  or  racemed 
catkins  (or  in  simple  clusters  in  the  Beech);  calyx  regular  or  scale-like;  stamens  5-20. 

*  U.  S.  Dispensatory,  15th  ed.,  pp.  825-6. 


62  HOUGH'S  AMERICAN  WOODS. 

Fertile  flowers  solitary,  clustered  or  spiked,  and  furnished  with  an  involucre  which 
forms  a  cup  or  covering  to  the  nut;  calyx-tube  adherent  to  the  ovary,  its  teeth  min- 
ute and  crowning  the  summit;  ovary  2-7-celled  with  1-2  pendulous  ovules  in  each 
cell,  but  all  of  the  cells  and  ovules,  except  one,  disappearing  before  maturity;  stig- 
mas sessile.  Fruit  a  1-celled,  1-seeded  nut,  solitary  or  several  together,  and  partly 
or  wholly  covered  by  the  scaly  (in  some  cases  echinate)  involucral  cup  or  covering; 
seed  albumenless,  with  an  auatropous,  often  edible,  embryo;  cotyledons  thick  and 
fleshy. 

Represented  by  both  trees  and  shrubs. 

GENUS  QUERCUS,  L. 

Flowers  greenish  or  yellowish.  Sterile  flowers  in  loose,  slender,  naked  catkins, 
which  spring  singly  or  several  together  from  axillary  buds  ;  calyx  2-8  parted  or 
cleft;  stamens  3-12;  anthers  2-celled.  Fertile  floicers  with  ovary  nearly  3-celled  and 
6-ovuled,  2  of  the  cells  and  5  of  the  ovules  being  abortive;  stigma  3-lobed;  involu- 
cre developing  into  a  hard,  scaly  cup  around  the  base  of  the  nut  or  acorn,  which  is 
1-celled,  1-seeded 

(The  ancient  Latin  name  for  the  Oak  supposed  to  be  from  the  Celtic  quer,  fine,  and 
cuez,  tree.) 

15.  QUERCUS  RUBRA,  L. 

RED  OAK. 
Ger.,  Rofhe  Eiche;  Fr.,   Cliene  rouge;  Sp.,  Roble  rojo. 

SPECIFIC  CHARACTERS: — Leaves  on  long  and  slender  petioles,  abrupt  or  obtuse  at 
the  base,  rather  thin  and  smooth  both  sides  when  mature,  oval  or  obovate  in  outline, 
moderately  (rarely  deeply)  penatifid,  with  rounded  sinuses  and  7-9  narrow  lobes 
these  and  the  teeth  being  conspicuously  bristle- pointed,  turning  dark  red  in  autumn, 
whence  the  name  ' '  Red  Oak. "  Flowers  appear  in  May.  Sterile  with  calyx  2-5-parted 
and  3-5  stamens.  Fruit  an  acorn,  requiring  two  years  to  reach  maturity,  and,  there- 
fore, found  when  mature  on  old  wood  below  the  leaves  of  the  season,  oblong-ovoid 
or  turgid-ovoid,  large,  sometimes  an  inch  in  length,  with  bitter  kernel  and  the  abor- 
tive ovules  at  the  apex  of  the  seed,  one-third  immersed  in  the  shallow  saucer- shaped 
cup,  which  is  8-12  lines  in  diameter,  flat  and  broad  with  upturned  edges,  of  fine 
firrnly-appressed  and  smoothish  scales,  sessile  or  on  a  very  short  narrow  stalk  very 
much  shorter  than  the  acorn. 

(The  specific  name,  rubra,  is  the  Latin  for  red.) 

One  of  the  largest  and  most  beautiful  of  our  Oaks,  "  giving  an  idea 
of  nobility  and  great  strength/'  and  attaining  the  height  of  80  ft. 
(24  m.)  or  more,  with  a  trunk  sometimes  6  or  7  ft.  (2  m.)  in  diame- 
ter, and  with  a  wide-spreading  top.  Its  bark  is  smoother  than  with  most 
of  the  oaks,  and  of  a  dark-gray  color.  It  possesses  an  acrid,  sour  juice, 
which  causes  iron  to  corrode  rapidly  when  in  contact  with  it. 

HABITAT. —  A  northern  Oak;  found  generally  throughout  Canada 
and  north-eastern  United  States,  growing  alike  in  rich  and  poor  soils. 

PHYSICAL  PROPERTIES.  —  Wood  heavy,  hard,  strong  and  coarse- 
grained, very  liable  to  check  in  drying  and  of  a  light  brownish  or  reddish 
color  with  lighter  sap-wood .  Specific  Gravity,  0. 6540 ;  Percentage  of  Ash, 
0.26;  Relative  Approximate  Fuel  Value,  0.6523;  Coefficient  of  Elasticity, 
112798;  Modulus  of  Rupture,  990;  Resistance  to  Longitudinal  Pressure, 
511;  Resistance  to  Indentation,  177;  Weight  of  a  Cubic  Foot  in  Pounds, 
40.76. 


16.  FAGUS  FERRUGINEA  —  AMERICAN  BEECH.  63 

USES. — The  timber  of  this  species  is  of  comparatively  little  economic 
value,  excepting  for  fuel  and  in  the  manufacture  of  casks,  tubs  etc., 
and  occasionally  for  interior  finishing,  chairs,  etc.  • 

It  is  a  beautiful  shade-tree,  and  its  acorns  are  eagerly  sought  after  by 
cattle  and  other  domestic  animals. 

MEDICINAL  PROPERTIES. —  So  far  as  known,  none  are  possessed  by 
this  species. 

GENUS  FAGUS,  TOURN. 

Leaves  undivided,  strongly  straight-veined,  plaited  lengthwise  in  the  slender 
pointed  buds,  and  growing  in  a  light  slender  spray.  Flowers  appearing  with  the 
leaves.  Sterile  flowers  yellowish,  from,  the  lower  axils  of  the  leaves  of  the  season, 
in  loose  heads  suspended  by  long  slender  peduncles  and  with  deciduous,  scale-like 
bracts;  calyx  5-7-cleft,  bell-shaped;  stamens  5-16,  with  slender  filaments  and  2-celled 
anthers.  Fertile  flowers  in  pairs  at  the  end  of  short  peduncles,  each  pair  invested  with 
a4-lobed  involucre  composed  of  more  or  less  united,  linear,  soft,  prickly  scales;  calyx 
with  usually  six  minute,  awl-shaped  lobes;  ovary  3-celled  with  2  ovules  in  each  cell; 
styles  3,  thread-like.  Fruit  a  sharply  3-angled,  1 -seeded  nut,  enclosed,  two  together, 
within  the  involucral  burr,  which  opens  at  maturity  by  4  valves;  embryo  esculent 
and  of  very  pleasant  flavor;  cotyledons  thick. 

(Fagus  is  probably  from  Gk.,  tpayeiv,  to  eat,  in  allusion  to  the  edible  fruit.) 


16.  FAGUS  FERRUGINEA,  AIT. 
AMERICAN  BEECH. 

Ger.,    Amerikanisclie    Buche;    Fr.,    Hetre    d' Amerique;     Sp.,    Hay  a 

Americana. 

SPECIFIC  CHARACTERS: — Leaves  oblong  ovate,  about  one-half  as  wide  as  long,  with 
short  petioles,  taper-pointed,  obtuse  or  slightly  cordate  at  the  base,  toothed  with 
remote  teeth,  furnished  with  silky  white  hairs  when  young,  but  at  length  nearly 
glabrous,  remaining  late  on  the  tree,  sometimes  during  a  part  of  the  winter;  buds 
with  brown  imbricated  scales;  stipules  long  and  slender,  falling  early.  Flowers  in 
May;  the  sterile  cluster,  with  peduncle,  about  2  in.  long,  pubescent.  Fruit  a  small, 
ovoid,  triangular  nut,  the  prickles  of  its  burr  mostly  recurved  or  spreading. 

(The  specific  name,  ferruginea,  is  a  Latin  adjective  meaning  dusky,  ferruginous.) 

A  neat,  handsome  tree,  always  recognizable  by  its  smooth,  unbroken, 
bluish-gray  bark.  Occasionally  a  specimen  is  found  100  ft.  (30  m.)  or 
more  in  height,  and  its  round,  smooth  trunk  4  ft.  (1.22  m.)  in  diameter, 
but  more  commonly  it  is  much  smaller. 

HABITAT. —  Canada  and  north-eastern  United  States,  westward  as  far 
as  Wisconsin,  and  southward  among  the  Alleganies  to  Georgia.  Very 
common  in  the  northern  forests,  growing  in  rocky  and  not  very  moist 
soil,  and  attaining,  perhaps,  its  greatest  development  in  Wisconsin, 
Michigan  and  in  the  forests  generally  about  the  Great  Lakes. 

PHYSICAL  PROPERTIES. — Wood  hard,  tough,  rather  close-grained, 
strong,  inclined  to  check  in  drying,  taking  a  very  smooth  and  beautiful 
polish;  color  reddish-brown  of  various  shades;  sap-wood  nearly  white, 
medullary  rays  large  and  conspicuous.  Specific  Gravity,  0.6883;  Per- 


64  HOUGH'S  AMERICAN  WOODS. 

centage  of  Ash,  0.51;  Relative  Approximate  Fuel  Value,  0.6848;  Coeffi- 
cient of  Elasticity,  120996;  Modulus  of  Rupture,  1148;  Resistance  to 
Longitudinal  Pressure,  478;  Resistance  to  Indentation,  196;  Weight  of  a 
Cubic  Foot  in  Pounds,  42.89. 

USES. —  This  timber  is  used  almost  exclusively  in  the  manufacture  of 
plane-stocks.  It  is  also  used  for  shoe-lasts,  and  to  considerable  extent  in 
the  manufacture  of  chairs,  table-legs,  wooden-ware,  tool-handles  and 
turned-work  generally.  It  is  used,  too,  for  ship-timbers  to  some  extent. 
It  makes  very  good  fuel,  leaving  an  ash  that  is  rich  in  potassium. 

The  nuts  of  this  tree,  known  as  "  Beech  mast/'  are  extensively  eaten 
by  squirrels,  pigeons,  grouse,  etc.,  and  the  bear  and  deer  find  them  dainty 
morsels.  The  deer  of  the  Adirondacks,  where  this  tree  is  abundant, 
grow  fat  in  early  summer  on  the  young  Beech  "sprouts/'  which  they 
find  springing  up  in  abundance  everywhere  along  the  hill-sides. 

A  fixed  oil  obtained  from  the  nuts  is  similar  in  nature  and  properties  to 
the  Cottonseed  Oil,  and  that  of  the  European  Beech  (F.  sylvatica)  ranks 
next  to  the  Olive  Oil  in  value  for  table  use.  Doubtless  the  American 
product  is  as  valuable  when  properly  prepared. 

ORDER  BETULACEJE.  BIRCH  FAMILY. 

Leaves  simple,  alternate,  straight-veined  and  furnished  with  stipules  which  fall 
away  early.  Flowers  mostly  naked,  monoecious,  both  kinds  in  catkins,  2  or  3  together 
under  a  8-lobed  bract  or  scale.  Sterile  flowers  with  distinct  stamens  and  2-celled 
anthers.  Fertile  flowers  with  two  thread-like  stigmas,  and  a  2-celled  ovary,  each  cell 
containing  2  pendulous  ovules,  becoming  by  abortion  in  Fruit,  a  small,  1-celled, 
1-seeded  nutlet,  often  with  membranous  wings;  seed  anatropous,  alburueuless,  with 
flattish,  oblong  cotyledons  which  become  foliaceous  in  germination. 

Trees  or  shrubs,  with  bark  which  separates  more  or  less  easily  into  thin  layers. 

GENUS  BETULA,  TOURN. 

Leaves  ovate,  serrate;  these,  with  the  twigs,  especially  the  latter,  spicy-aromatic. 
Flowers  appearing  in  early  spring  with  or  before  the  leaves.  Sterile  flowers  in  long, 
drooping,  cylindrical,  both  terminal  and  lateral,  yellow  catkins,  appearing  in  summer 
and  remaining  dormant  during  the  following  winter  to  open  and  perform  their  function 
early  the  next  season;  bracts  3-lobed,  shield-shaped,  and  beneath  each  are  2  bractlets 
and  3  flowers  with  calyx  represented  by  a  mere  scale,  which  bears  the  4  short  stamens, 
each  with  a  single-celled  anther.  Fertile  flowers  in  cylindrical  or  oblong  catkins 
with  3-lobed  scales,  and  beneath  each  scale  are  2-3  naked  pistils  without  braclets  or 
calyx.  Fruit  a  small,  broadly-winged,  scale-like  nutlet  or  samara. 

Trees  and  shrubs  with  outer  bark  horizontally  fibrous  and  usually  separable  in 
sheets,  that  of  the  branchlets  dotted,  inner  bark  more  or  less  aromatic  and  of  pleas- 
ant flavor. 

17.  BETULA  LUTEA,  MICHX.  F. 

YELLOW  BIRCH,  GRAY  BIRCH. 
Ger.,   Oelbe  Birlce;  Fr.,  Bouleau  jaunc;  Sp.,  Abedul  amarillo. 

SPECIFIC  CHARACTERS:  —  Leaves  thinnish,  elliptical  or  ovate,  somewhat  tape- 
pointed,  often  narrowed  toward  the  rounded  or  slightly  heart-shaped  base,  straight- 


17.  BETULA   LUTEA  —  YELLOW  BIRCH.  65 

veined,  sharply  and  rather  coarsely  doubly  serrate,  smooth  when  old;  petioles  short 
and  downy.  The  leaves  in  autumn,  after  the  action  of  frosts,  turn  to  a  pale-yellow 
color.  Sterile  catkins  2-4  in.  long,  pendulous.  Fruiting  catkins  sessile,  erect, 
oblong-ovoid,  1  in.  or  less  in  length  and  |  to  £  in.  in  thickness;  scales  of  catkin 
nearly  or  quite  -£  in.  long,  rather  thin,  and  with  3  subequal,  acute  and  slightly 
diverging  lobes. 

(The  specific  name,  lutea,  is  a  Latin  adjective  meaning  yellow,  in  allusion  to  the 
color  of  the  bark.) 

A  tree  invested  with  a  yellowish,  pearly  or  silver-gray  outer  bark, 
which  peels  off  horizontally  in  thin  strips  or  layers,  and  hangs  loosely 
and  ribbon-like,  or  is  coiled  up  in  rolls,  giving  old  trunks  a  very  ragged 
appearance.  The  inner  bark,  especially  of  the  twigs,  is  pleasantly 
aromatic,  of  flavor  quite  similar  to  that  of  the  Wintergreen.  In  forests 
it  attains  and  sometimes  surpasses  the  dimensions  of  80  ft.  (24  m.)  in 
height  and  3  ft.  (0.91  m.)  in  thickness  of  trunk. 

HABITAT.  —  A  Northern  species,  found  throughout  north-eastern 
United  States,  Canada,  New  Brunswick  and  Nova  Scotia,  westward  lit- 
tle, if  any,  beyond  the  Great  Lakes,  and  southward  to  North  Carolina 
and  Tennessee,  but  there  only  among  the  Alleganies. 

PHYSICAL  PROPERTIES.  —  Wood  hard,  close-grained,  tough,  heavy  and 
very  strong,  compact,  taking  a  beautiful  satiny  polish.  Color  light 
reddish -brown  with  nearly  white  sap-wood.  Specific  Gravity,  0.6553; 
Percentage  of  Ash,  0.31;  Relative  Approximate  Fuel  Value,  0.6533; 
Coefficient  of  Elasticity,  161723;  Modulus  of  Rupture,  1248;  Resistance 
to  Longitudinal  Pressure,  619;  Resistance  to  Indentation,  161;  Weight 
of  a  Cubic  Foot  in  Pounds,  40.84. 

USES. — This  wood  is  very  valuable  as  fuel,  and  is  used  extensively  by 
wheel-wrights  and  cabinet-makers.  The  three-ply  chair  bottoms  in  com- 
mon use  are  made  very  largely  of  this  timber.  It  is  also  valuable  in  the 
manufacture  of  the  friction-pulleys,  and  the  smallest  wooden  articles, 
such  as  clothes-pins,  button  and  tassel  molds,  pill-boxes,  etc.  Young 
saplings,  cut  lengthwise  through  the  center,  make  excellent  and  strong 
hoops  for  casks,  etc.  Burls,  or  "  knots  "  as  they  are  often  called,  are  not 
uncommon  on  this  timber,  although  not  often  cut  into  veneering,  as  are 
those  of  the  Black  Ash  and  some  other  timbers.  They  are  highly  prized 
for  mallets,  beetles,  etc.  The  bark  is  used  to  some  extent  for  tanning 
purposes,  and  the  volatile  oil,  used  for  imparting  the  flavor  of  Birch  to 
candies,  soda-water,  etc.,  is  derived  to  some  extent  from  this  species, 
though  mostly  from  the  Sweet  Birch  (B.  lento). 

MEDICINAL  PROPERTIES. — None  are  recorded  of  this  species. 

ORDER  SALICACEJE.  WILLOW  FAMILY. 

Leaves  alternate,  simple,  undivided  and  furnished  with  stipules,  which  are  either 
scale-like  and  deciduous,  or  leaf -like  and  persistent.  Flotcers  dioecious,  both  kinds 
in  catkins,  one  under  each  bract  or  scale  of  the  catkin,  and  destitute  of  both  calyx 

9 


66  HOUGH'S  AMERICAN  WOODS. 

and  corolla,  or  the  former  represented  by  a  gland- like  cup;  ovary  1-  to  2-celled;  styles 
wanting,  or  2  and  short;  stigmas  often  2-lobed.     Fruit  a  1-  or  2-celled,  2-valved  pod 
with  numerous  seeds  springing  from  2  parietal  or  basal  placentae  and  furnished  with 
long,  silky  down;  seeds  ascending,  anatropous,  without  albumen;  cotyledons  flat. 
Trees  or  shrubs  of  rapid  growth,  light  wood  and  bitter  baik. 

GENUS  POPULUS,  TOURN. 

Leaves  broad,  more  or  less  heart-shaped  or  ovate,  and  petioles,  which  are  long  and 
often  vertically  compressed.  Flowers  appearing  before  the  leaves  in  long,  drooping, 
lateral,  cylindrical  catkins,  the  scales  of  which  are  furnished  with  a  fringed  margin; 
calyx  represented  by  an  oblique,  cup-shaped  disk  with  entire  margin;  stamens,  8-30 
or  more,  with  distinct  filaments;  pistil  with  very  short,  bifid  style,  and  large,  2-lobed 
stigma.  Fruit  as  described  for  the  order. 

Represented  by  rather  large  trees.  (A  Latin  word,  meaning  the  people,  and  appli- 
cable either  from  the  fact  that  these  trees  are  often  set  along  public  walks,  or  in 
allusion  to  the  tremulous  leaves  which  are  in  constant  agitation  like  a  crowd  of 
people.) 


18.  POPULUS  GRANDIDENTATA,  MICHX. 
LARGE-TOOTHED  ASPEN  OR  POPLAR,  WHITE-WOOD. 

Ger.,  Groszgezante  Espe;  Fr.,  Peuplier  a  grandes  dents;  Sp.,  Alano  de 

diente  grande. 

SPECIFIC  CHARACTERS: — Leaves  roundish,  ovate,  with  large  and  unequal  sinnate 
teeth,  densely  covered  with  silky  wool  when  young;  smooth  both  sides  when  old; 
twigs  terete  (not  angled  as  with  some  of  the  Poplars).  Flowers  (May)  in  catkins  3-4 
in.  long,  the  sterile  longer  than  the  fertile,  all  the  parts  hairy, 'stamens  about  12, 
catkin  scales  unequally  5-6-cleft,  furnished  with  a  slight,  silky  fringe.  Fruit  as 
described  for  the  order. 

(The  specific  name,  grandidentata ,  is  from  Latin,  grandis,  large,  and  dens,  a  tooth, 
in  allusion  to  the  coarsely- toothed  leaves.) 

A  medium-sized  tree,  rarely  surpassing  75  ft.  (23  m.)  in  height,  or 
2  ft.  (0.61  m.)  in  diameter  of  trunk. 

HABITAT. —  Almost  identical  in  range  with  the  Yellow  Birch,  being 
found  in  Nova  Scotia,  New  Brunswick,  Canada  and  the  northern  States, 
westward  as  far  as  Minnesota,  and  southward  along  the  mountains  to 
North  Carolina  and  Tennessee. 

PHYSICAL  PROPERTIES.  —  Wood  soft,  close-grained,  light,  compact, 
satiny  and  taking  a  smooth  finish.  Very  white,  when  properly  seasoned, 
excepting  the  heart,  which  is  of  a  light-brown  color.  Specific  Gravity, 
0.4632;  Percentage  of  Ash,  0.45;  Relative  Approximate  Fuel  Value, 
0.4611;  Coefficient  of  Elasticity,  96327;  Modulus  of  Rupture,  721; 
Resistance  to  Longitudinal  Pressure,  358;  Resistance  to  Indentation,  62; 
Weight  of  a  Cubic  Foot  in  Pounds,  28.87. 

USES. —  This  tree  seems  hitherto  not  to  have  been  ranked  as  high  in 
the  scale  of  economic  value  as  it  deserves,  but  the  reason  lies  doubtlessly 
in  the  fact  that  it  is  never  of  very  great  size,  and  it  seems  to  have  been 
overlooked  in  the  abundance  of  Pines,  Tulips,  Basswoods,  etc.,  which 


18.   POPULUS    GRAHDIDENTATA  —  ASPEK.  67 

this  country  affords.  It  is  not  liable  to  shrink,  and  would  be  valuable 
for  inside  finishing,  for  which  use  it  is  sometimes  employed.  It  is  used 
to  considerable  extent  in  turned-work  and  smaller  wooden-ware  generally. 
A  clothes-pin  manufacturer  in  northern  New  York  tells  us  that  he  con- 
siders the  Poplar  as  the  best  timber  for  his  use.  It  enters  largely  into 
the  manufacture  of  tooth-picks  and  excelsior,  but  its  principal  use  might 
be  said  to  be  in  the  manufacture  of  wood-pulp  for  paper,  and  for  this 
it  is  of  highest  value,  being  considered,  perhaps,  second  to  none  in 
importance. 

"  When,  in  the  time  of  our  grandmothers,  fashion  required  that  a  lady 
should  seem  somewhat  taller  than  nature  made  her,  the  light  wood  of 
this  poplar  was  in  demand  as  best  adapted  for  the  substance  of  the  high 
heels  of  their  shoes,  and  the  manufacture  constituted  a  distinct  trade. 
The  more  substantial  heels  of  the  shoes  of  the  lower  people  were  made 
of  more  durable  and  heavier  maple.  The  wood  was  also  extensively 
used  in  the  manufacture  of  hats  before  the  palm-leaf  was  introduced/'  * 

MEDICINAL  PROPERTIES.  —  None  are  recorded  for  this  species. 

GYMNOSPERM^E. 

Flowering,  exogenous  plants  with  leaves  chiefly  parallel-veined  and 
cotyledons  frequently  more  than  two.  Flowers  diclinous  and  very 
incomplete;  pistil  represented  by  an  open  scale  or  leaf,  or  altogether 
wanting,  with  ovules  naked,  fertilized  by  direct  cdntact  with  the  pollen, 
and  seeds  at  maturity  naked  — without  a  true  pericarp. 

ORDER  CONIFER JE:  PINE  FAMILY. 

Leaves  mostly  awl-shaped  or  needle-shaped,  evergreen,  entire  and  parallel -veined. 
Flowers  monoecious,  or  rarely  dioecious,  in  catkins  or  cones,  destitute  of  both  calyx 
and  corolla;  stamens  one  or  several  (usually  united);  ovary,  style  and  stigma  want- 
ing; ovules  one  or  several  at  the  base  of  a  scale,  which  serves  as  a  carpel,  or  on  an 
open  disk.  Fruit  a  cone,  woody  and  with  distinct  scales,  or  somewhat  berry-like,  and 
with  fleshy  coherent  scales;  seeds  orthotropous,  embryo  in  the  axis  of  the  albumen. 

Trees  or  shrubs  with  a  resinous  juice. 

GENUS  PINUS,  TOURN. 

Leaves  evergreen,  needle-shaped,  from  slender  buds,  in  clusters  of  2-5  together, 
each  clucter  invested  at  its  base  with  a  sheath  of  thin,  membranous  scales.  Flowers 
appearing  in  spring,  monoecious.  Sterile  flowers  in  catkins,  clustered  at  the  base  of 
the  shoots  of  the  season;  stamens  numerous  with  very  short  filaments  and  a  scale-like 
connective;  anther  cells,  2,  opening  lengthwise;  pollen  grains  triple.  Fertile  flowers 
in  conical  or  cylindrical  spikes  —  cones — consisting  of  imbricated,  carpellary  scales, 
each  in  the  axil  of  a  persistent  bract  and  bearing  at  its  base  within  a  pair  of  inverted 
ovules.  Fruit  maturing  in  the  autumn  of  the  second  year,  a  cone  formed  of  the 
imbricated  carpellary  scales,  which  are  woody,  often  thickened  or  awned  at  the  apex, 
persistent,  when  ripe  dry  and  spreading  to  liberate  the  two  nut-like  winged  seeds; 
cotyledons  3-12,  linear.  * 

(Pinus  is  a  Latin  word  from  Celtic  pin  or  pen,  a  crag.) 

*  The  Trees  and  Shrubs  of  Massachusetts,  by  Geo.  B.  Emerson,  2d  ed.,  p.  279. 


68  HOUGH'S  AMERICAN  WOODS. 

19.  PINUS  RESINOSA,  AIT. 

RED  PINE,  "  NORWAY  "  PINE. 
Ger.,  Harzige  Fi  elite;  Fr.,  Pin  rouge;  Sp.,  Pino  rizado. 

SPECIFIC  CHAKACTERS: — Leaves  5-8  in.  (13-20  cm.)  long,  dark-green,  arranged  in 
pairs,  with  a  close  sheath  6-12  lines  (1-3  cm.)  in  length,  enveloping  the  base  of  each 
pair.  Fruit  an  ovoid-conical,  terminal  cone,  with  rounded  base,  about  2  in.  (5  cm.) 
or  more  in  length,  and  with  slightly  thickened,  awnless  scales,  falling  after  shedding 
the  seeds  which  are  slightly  ridged  beneath;  cotyledons  6-7. 

(The  specific  name,  resinosa,  is  the  Latin  for  resinous.) 

A  tree  of  handsome,,  vigorous  aspect,  commonly  attaining  the  height 
of  80  ft.  (24  m.)  or  more,  with  a  straight,  uniform  trunk  2  ft.  (.61  m.) 
in  diameter  and  covered  with  reddish  bark,  which  constantly  flakes  off, 
when  old,  in  rather  small,  irregular  scales. 

HABITAT. —  Northern  United  States  and  Canada,  southward  as  far  as 
into  Pennsylvania,  and  said  to  reach  its  greatest  development  in  Michi- 
gan, Wisconsin  and  Minnesota,  growing  in  dry,  sandy  loam,  particularly 
along  ridges. 

PHYSICAL  PROPERTIES.  —  Wood  light,  not  very  strong,  elastic,  resin- 
ous and  durable,  harder  than  the  White  Pine,  with  yellowish-white  sap- 
wood,  slightly  reddish  heart  and  very  conspicuous  grain.  Specific 
Gravity,  0.4854;  Percentage  of  Ash,  0.27;  Relative  Approximate  Fuel 
Value,  0.4841;  Coefficient  of  Elasticity,  113216;  Modulus  of  Rupture, 
800;  Resistance  to  Longitudinal  Pressure,  455;  Resistance  to  Indenta- 
tion, 85;  Weight  of  a  Cubic  Foot  in  Pounds,  30.25. 

USES. — The  principal  value  of  this  timber  is  in  its  usefulness  for  flooring, 
wainscoting,  etc.,  for  which  its  hardness  renders  it  excellent.  It  is  also 
used  in  localities  for  pump-logs,  piles,  ship-building,  etc.  Notwithstanding 
the  inference  one  might  draw  from  the  specific  name,  resinosa,  resinous, 
very  little,  if  any,  of  the  resin  or  turpentine  of  commerce  comes  from 
this  tree. 

MEDICINAL  PROPERTIES. —  None  are  ascribed  to  this  species. 

GENUS  ABIES,  TOUKN. 

Leaves  evergreen,  solitary,  scattered  (not  clustered  nor  sheathed  at  the  base),  short, 
all  of  one  kind  and  foliaceous.  Flowers  appear  in  spring.  Sterile  flowers  in  catkins, 
scattered,  or  somewhat  clustered  in  the  axils  of  the  leaves  of  the  preceding  year. 
Fertile  flowers  in  catkins  or  cones,  which  are  lateral  or  terminal  on  the  shoots  of  the 
preceding  year.  Fruit  a  cone,  maturing  in  the  autumn  of  the  first  year,  otherwise 
quite  as  described  for  Genus  Pinus,  excepting  the  scales  are  thin  and  flat  (neither 
thickened  nor  furnished  with  a  spur  at  the  apex);  seed  with  a  persistent  wing;  coty- 
ledons 3-9. 

(Abies  is  an  ancient  Latin  name  of  the  Fir-tree.) 


20.  ABIES  NIGRA —  BLACK  SPRUCE.  69 

20.  ABIES  NIGRA,  Pom. 

BLACK  SPRUCE,  DOUBLE  SPRUCE,  RED  SPRUCE. 

Ger.,  Schwartztanne;  Fr.,  Epinette  noire;  Sp.,  Abeto  negro. 

SPECIFIC  CHARACTERS: — Leaves  short,  needle-shaped,  about  6  lines  (1.27  cm.)  or 
slightly  more  in  length,  4-sided,  and  scattered  thickly  over  the  branches,  pointing 
every  way.  Sterile  flowers  appear  in  May,  having  anthers  tipped  with  a  rounded, 
recurved  appendage,  and  cells  distinct,  opening  lengthwise.  Fruit  an  ovoid  or 
ovoid-oblong  cone,  1-lf  in.  (2.5-4.5  cm.)  in  length,  usually  recurved,  persistent,  with 
inconspicuous  bracts  and  elliptical-obovate  scales,  which  are  rigid  and  persistent  on 
the  axis,  with  thin  scales,  usually  eroded  or  ragged  tip. 

(The  specific  name,  nigra,  is  the  Latin  for  black.) 

A  tree  commonly  attaining  the  height  of  80  ft.  (24  in.),  with  a  straight, 
columnar  trunk  of  2  ft.  (0.61  m.)  or  more  in  diameter,  covered  with  a 
rather  smooth,  bluish-brown  bark,  which  flakes  off  when  old  in  small 
scales.  The  top  often  develops  in  a  pyramidal  form,  with  branches 
falling  below  a  horizontal  line  growth. 

HABITAT. —  Northern  United  States,  Canada  and  northward,  forming 
in  some  localities  large  tracts  of  forest.  It  occurs  southward  as  far  as 
Pennsylvania,  and  sparingly  among  the  mountains  to  North  Carolina. 

PHYSICAL  PROPERTIES.  —  Wood  light,  soft,  elastic,  strong,  compact 
and  satiny,  often  of  slightly  reddish  tint,  and  with  lighter,  nearly  white, 
sap-wood.  Specific  Gravity,  0.4584;  Percentage  of  Ash,  0.27;  Relative 
Approximate  Fuel  Value,  0.4572;  Coefficient  of  Elasticity,  109987;  Modu- 
lus of  Rupture,  747;  Resistance  to  Longitudinal  Pressure,  407;  Resist- 
ance to  Indentation,  77;  Weight  of  a  Cubic  Foot  in  Pounds,  28.57. 

USES. —  This  timber  is  of  great  value  in  the  manufacture  of  lumber 
for  many  uses,  especially  for  flooring,  coping,  general  house-building, 
ship-building  etc.  It  is  used  largely  for  piles  and  for  the  spars  of  ves- 
sels it  is  considered  invaluable.  One  very  important  use  is  in  the  manu- 
facture of  sounding-boards  for  pianos,  violins  and  other  stringed  instru- 
ments, for  which  use  the  "quarter"  grain  lumber,  i.  e.,  lumber  cut  on 
radial  section,  is  always  used.  It  is  said  by  instrument  makers  that  few 
if  any  timbers  equal  the  Spruce  in  value  for  this  use.  It  is  one  of  the 
best  of  timbers  on  account  of  its  combined  lightness  and  stiffness  for 
canoe  paddles,  oars  for  shells,  etc. 

A  resinous  exudation  from  this  tree  is  valued  as  a  chewing-gum,  and 
meets  with  such  ready  sale  that  the  gathering  of  it  is  quite  an  industry, 
at  least  in  the  vicinity  of  our  home  in  northern  New  York,  from  which 
section  hundreds  of  pounds  are  gathered  annually  and  shipped  to  market. 

MEDICINAL  PROPERTIES. —  An  essence  of  Spruce  is  made  by  boiling 
the  young  branches  of  this  tree  in  water  and  evaporating  the  decoction. 
It  is  used  in  the  manufacture  of  spruce  beer,  which  is  a  pleasant  and 


;o  Hoi -uifr-,  AMKKICAN  WOODS. 

wholesome  beverage,  especially  in  summer,  and  it  is  sometimes  useful  on 
long  sea- voyages  as  a  preventive  of  scurvy,* 


21.  ABIES  CANADENSIS,  MICHX. 

HEMLOCK,  II  KM  LOCK  FIR. 
Ger.,  Scliierling-Tannc;  Fr.,  Feruclie;  Sp.,  Abcto  Canadense. 

SPECIFIC  C'liAK.u  TEKS: — Isucc.*  linear,  short,  flat,  £  in.  (I  cm. ),  or  slightly  more 
in  length,  flat,  obtuse,  obscurely  denticulate,  whitened  beneath,  short-petioled  and 
diverging  in  opposite,  directions  from  the  sides  of  the  branchlet.  Flvirers  appear  in 
May.  >y<  / -i!(  flowers  in  small  globose  catkins  each  of  a  few  capitate  anthers  whose 
short,  confluent  cells  open  transversely;  pollen  grains  simple.  Fruit  small  ovoid 
cones,  scarcely  longer  than  the  leaves, 'pendent  from  the  tips  of  the  branches  of  the 
preceding  year,  persistent,  \\iih  inconspicuous  bracts,  and  of  fe\v,  thin,  rounded, 
entire  scales,  which  are  persistent  on  the  axis. 

A  handsome  tree,  sometimes  attaining  the  dimensions  of  100  ft.  (30 
in.)  in  height  with  a  trunk  3  ft.  (0.01  m.)  in  diameter,  quite  straight 
and  covered  with  firm.,  ridged  bark.  The  sprays  of  young  vigorous  trees 
are  peculiarly  light  and  graceful  in  appearance,  of  dark  green  color  above 
and  showing  in  pretty  contrast  the  whitish  under  surfaces,  when  turned 
up  by  the  winds.  The  beauty  is  enhanced  in  early  summer  bv  each 
branchlet  being  tipped  with  the  delicate  light  -green  new  shoots  of  the 
season. 

HABITAT. —  North-eastern  Tinted  States  generally,  Canada,  New 
Brunswick  and  Nova.  Scotia,  southward  to  North  Carolina  and  Tennessee 
among  the  mountains  and,  according  to  Dr.  Mohr,  into  Alabama.  A 
very  abundant  tree  in  many  of  (lie  forests  of  the  north-east. 

PHYSICAL  PROPERTIES. —  Wood  light,  rather  soft  and  brittle,  coarse- 
grained and  not  very  easily  worked,  of  a  light,  somewhat,  reddish  or 
brownish  color,  with  lighter  sap-wood  and  conspicuous  grain.  Specific 
G rarity,  O.x!430:  Percentage  of  A$h,  0.46;  Relative  Approximate  Fuel 
Value,  0.4^<»;  Coefficient  of  Elasticity,  80070;  Modulus  of  Rupture,  730; 
Re*i4(tnw  lo  Longitudinal  Presfuuv,  384;  /ifts-ittance  to  Indentation,  82; 
Wfifjht  of  a  Cubic  Foot  in  I*ouiulx,  20.4'v. 

I'SES. —  This  timber  is  extensively  cmnloved  throughout  its  rano-e  for 

*-  i  o  o 

joists,  rafters,  planks  and  siding  for  building  purposes,  fences,  plank- 
walks  etc.,  for  which  use  it  is  invaluable.  Lath  are  extensively  made  of 
this  timber,  and  many  trees  of  small  size  are  felled  for  railroad  ties. 

Perhaps  the  principal  point  of  value  of  this  tree  lies  in  its  bark,  which 
is  verv  rich  in  tannin,  and  in  the  north  it,  is  by  far  the  chief  source  of 
that  product  for  tanning  leather. 


22.  ABIES  BALSAMEA  —  BALSAM.  71 

MEDICINAL  PROPERTIES.  —  A  resinous  exudation  of  this  tree,  known 
in  Pharmacopoeia  as  Fix  Canadensis,  Hemlock  Pitch  or  Canada  Pitch, 
is  a  gentle  rubefacient  very  similar  to  the  Burgundy  Pitch,  and,  like 
that,  is  used  in  the  preparation  of  stimulating  plasters  for  application  in 
cases  of  chronic  rheumatic  pains,  chronic  affections  of  the  chest,  etc.* 
This  Hemlock  must  not  be  confounded  with  an  herb  of  the  same  name 
—  the  Poison  Hemlock  (Conium  maculatum)  — whose  medicinal  proper- 
ties are  entirely  different. 


22.  ABIES  BALSAMEA,  MARSHALL. 

BALSAM,  BALSAM  FIR,  BALM-OF-GILEAD  FIR. 

Ger.,  Balsam- Tanne;  Fr.,  Sap-in  baumier;  Sp.,  Abeto  balsamico. 

SPECIFIC  CHARACTERS: — Leaves  linear,  flat,  obtuse,  9  lines  (1.90  cm.)  or  slightly 
more  in  length,  emarginate  or  entire,  bright-green  above,  the  mid-rib  prominent 
along  the  glaucous-silvery  under  surface,  nearly  sessile,  spirally  arranged,  but  at 
once  diverging  to  either  side,  making  a  flat  spray.  Flowers -in  May  or  June.  Sterile 
flowers  with  anthers  tipped  with  a  1-2-pointed  appendage,  and  the  cells  opening  by 
laceration;  pollen  quite  as  in  the  Pine.  Fruit,  cones,  which  are  erect,  cylindrical, 
large  2-4  in.  (5-10  cm.)  long,  violet-colored,  with  slightly  projecting,  obovate 
serulate,  mucronate  bracts;  these,  with  the  broad,  compact  scales,  deciduous  from 
the  persistent  axis  at  maturity. 

(The  specific  name,  balsamea,  is  the  Latin  for  balsamic.) 

A  tree  rarely  more  than  80  ft.  (24  m. )  in  height,  or  with  a  trunk  more 
than  2  ft.  (.61  m.)  in  diameter,  and  even  these  dimensions  are  reached 
only  under  most  favorable  circumstances.  It  is  covered  with  a  smooth 
bark  raised,  everywhere  about  the  trunk,  in  blisters,  which  hold  each 
from  a  drop  or  two  to  nearly  a  half  teaspoon  of  a  thick,  transparent, 
viscid  fluid,  which  is  the  Canada  Balsam  or  Balm  of  Fir  of  commerce. 
The  branches  grow  out  usually  in  whorls  of  about  five  each,  with  great 
regularity,  and,  diminishing  in  length  from  below  upwards,  develop  into 
a  perfectly  pyramidal  top  with  a  symmetry  and  compactness  that  is  very 
striking,  and  giving  to  "  Balsam  swamps  ".  a  characteristic  aspect. 

HABITAT. —  North-eastern  United  States  and  Canada,  southward  to 
Virginia,  westward  beyond  the  Mississippi,  and  far  northward,  growing 
in  swamps  and  cold,  damp  woods. 

PHYSICAL  PROPERTIES. — Wood  very  soft,  light,  not  strong  nor  durable, 
coarse-grained,  remarkably  easily  split  and  very  satiny,  whitish  with 
slightly  reddish  tin*  to  heart  and  very  distinct  grain.  Specific  Gravity, 
0.3819;  Percentage  of  Ash,  0.45;  Relative  Approximate  Fuel  Value, 
0.3802;  Coefficient  of  Elasticity,  81924;  Modulus  of  Rupture,  515 ; 
Resistance  to  Longitudinal  Pressure,  365;  Resistance  to  Indentation, 
75;  Weight  of  a  Cubic  Foot  in  Pounds,  23.80. 

*U.  8.  Dispensatory,  15th  ed.,  pp.  1123-4 


72  HOUGH'S  AMERICAN  WOODS. 

USES.  —  Lumber  is  manufactured  from  this  tree  to  but  very  slight 
extent  and  is  little  used.  Its  handsome  form  and  vigorous  growth 
makes  it  useful,  especially  while  young,  as  an  ornamental  shade-tree  and 
in  the  formation  of  wind-breaks. 

The  boughs  of  this  tree  are  sought  by  the  Adirondack  sojourner  for 
the  construction  of  his  bed,  as  they  are  more  springy  and  suitable  than 
any  thing  else  at  hand  —  and  delightful  beds  they  do  make.  The 
fragrance  with  which  they  fill  the  camp  is  delicious,  and  in  that  alone  he 
feels  largely  repaid  for  the  labor  his  trip  has  cost  him.  A  pillow  made 
from  these  boughs  is  oftentimes  carried  home  to  serve,  by  its  perfume,  as  a 
reminder  during  the  coming  winter  of  the  happy  associations  of  his 
camp-life  and  especially  of  the  balsam-bed. 

GENUS  LARIX,  TOURN. 

Leaves  needle-shaped,  soft,  deciduous,  in  clusters  of  many  each,  from  lateral  scaly 
buds  excepting  along  the  shoots  of  the  season,  where  they  are  scattered.  Sterile  flowers 
terminating  lateral  scaly  buds  or  spurs  on  shoots  of  preceding  year,  with  2-celled 
anthers  opening  longitudinally;  pollen  grains,  simple  and  globular.  Fertile  flowers 
in  catkins  —  cones  —  red  while  in  flower,  consisting  of  several  or  many  carpellary 
scales  springing  from  the  axils  of  bracts,  and  bearing  each  2  ovules  with  orifices 
turned  downward.  Fruit  an  erect,  oval  or  roundish  cone,  with  colored  persistent 
scales,  and  maturing  the  season  of  blossoming. 

(Larix  is  the  Latin  classical  name  of  the  Larch.) 

23.  LARIX  AMERICANA,  MICHX. 

TAMARACK,  AMERICAN  OR  BLACK  LARCH,  HACKMATACK. 

Ger.,    Amerikanische    Larclie;    Fr.,    Meleze    Americain;     Sp.,    Larice 

Americana. 

SPECIFIC  CHARACTERS: — Leaves  filiform,  short  —  about  1  in.  (2.54  cm.)  in  length  — 
and  very  slender.  Cones  deep  purple,  ovoid,  £  in.  (1.90  cm.)  or  less  in  length,  with 
scales  few,  rounded,  thin  and  inflexed  on  the  margin. 

A  beautiful  tree,  not  often  exceeding  80  ft.  (24  m.)  in  height,  of  pecu- 
liar aspect,  with  slender  tapering  and  very  straight  trunk,  rarely  over  2-J 
ft.  (0.76  m.)  in  thickness  of  base,  horizontal  symmetrical  branches  and 
thin  lightish  green  foliage,  which  in  autumn  turns  to  a  soft  yellow  color. 
The  bark  is  of  a  bluish  gray  color,  and  like  that  of  the  Spruce  flakes  off 
when  old  in  small  roundish  scales. 

HABITAT. —  North-eastern  United  States,  north  of  Pennsylvania  and 
northward  nearly  or  quite  to  the  Arctic  Regions,  probably  reaching  its 
greatest  development  in  Canada,  where  it  grows  on  moist  uplands.  In 
the  United  States  it  is  confined  mostly  to  cold  swamps  interspersed 
usually  with  the  Balsam. 

SPECIFIC  CHARACTERS. —  Wood  heavy,  strong,  hard,  compact  and 
durable,  of  light  brown  color  with  lighter  sap-wood  and  conspicuous 
bold  grain.  Specific  Gravity,  0.2636;  Percentage  of  Ash,  0.33;  Relative 


23.  LARIX  AMERICANA  —  TAMARACK.  73 

Approximate  Fuel  Value,  0.6215;  Coefficient  of  Elasticity,  126126;  Modu- 
lus of  Rupture,  901;  Resistance  to  Longitudinal  Pressure,  536;  Resist- 
ance to  Indentation,  112;  Weight  of  a  Cubic  Foot  in  Pounds,  38.86. 

USES. —  A  favorite  wood  in  ship-building  especially  when  gotten  out 
as  "natural  crooks"  for  knees  and  similar  timbers,  for  which  its  durability 
and  toughness  render  it  very  valuable.  It  makes  excellent  fence-posts, 
telegraph-poles  etc.,  and  is  one  of  the  very  best  of  our  timbers  for  rail- 
way ties.  So  much  is  it  in  demand  for  those  purposes  that  we  do  not 
often  see  it  sawn  into  lumber. 

MEDICINAL  PROPERTIES. —  The  inner  bark  of  the  European  Larch 
possesses  astringent  and  slightly  stimulant  properties,  and  is  supposed  to 
have  a  special  tendency  to  the  mucous  membranes.  It  has  been  found 
efficacious  in  the  treatment  of  bronchitis,  haemoptysis  and  of  catarrhal 
affections  generally  of  the  pulmonary  and  urinary  passages.*  Doubtless 
the  American  species,  which  is  closely  allied  to  the  European,  would  be 
found  to  possess  the  same  medicinal  properties. 

NOTE. —  A  "Tamarack  Swamp,"  as  occasionally  seen  in  the  Adiron- 
dack region,  presents  a  very  singular  appearance.  They  are  often  found 
bordering  ponds  and  beaver-meadows,  and  in  such  tracts  Tamarack  is 
often  the  only  timber  found.  Then  the  absence  of  underbrush,  the  deli- 
cate light-green  foliage,  the  rather  pyramidal-shaped  tops  and  straight 
trunks  form  striking  features.  But  especially  is  one  impressed  with  the 
way  in  which  the  branches  grow  out  only  above" a  certain  level,  a  little 
higher  than  one's  head,  and  that  level  is  as  accurately  defined  in  every 
tree  as  though  it  were  a  high- water  mark. 

Another  impressive  feature  is  the  soft  yielding  carpet  of  sphagnum 
moss  which  covers  the  ground,  and  into  which  one  sinks  ankle-deep  as  he 
walks.  He  can  scarcely  hear  the  sound  of  his  own  foot-steps,  and  the 
oppressive  silence  is  only  broken  by  the  sighing  of  the  wind  through  the 
tree- tops,  or  perhaps  by  the  sweet  song  of  the  White-throated  Sparrow, 
which  is  common  in  those  localities.  Such  a  swamp  once  visited  is  long 
remembered. 

GENUS  THUJA,  TOUKN. 

Leaves  evergreen,  small  and  scale-like,  closely  imbricated  and  appressed,  so  as  to 
make  flat  two-edged  branchlets.  Flowers  (May,  June)  monoecious,  in  terminal  very 
small  ovoid  catkins.  Sterile  catkins  with  scales  imbricated,  filaments  scale-like  bear- 
ing each  4  anther-cells.  Fertile  catkins  consisting  of  a  few  carpellary  scales  without 
bracts,  and  bearing  each  two  erect  ovules  with  orifices  turned  upward,  becoming  in 
Fruit  a  small  dry  cone,  as  described  above,  opening  at  maturity;  seeds  winged;  coty- 
ledons two. 

(Thuja  is  from  Greek,  SVGO,  to  burn  perfumes  in  allusion  to  the  fragrance  of  the 
smoke.) 


10 


*  U.  8.  Dispensatory,  15th  ed.,  p.  844. 


74  HOUGH'S  AMERICAN  WOODS. 

24.  THUJA  OCCIDENTALS,  L 

ARBOR- VIT^E,  WHITE  CEDAR. 

Ger.,  Amerikanische  Lebendbaum;  Fr.,  Thuja  d'  Occident;  Sp.,  Tnya 

Occidental. 

SPECIFIC  CHARACTERS: — Leaves  in  four  rows,  appressed  as  described  for  the  genus 
and  flattened  horizontally,  all  on  the  same  branchlet  lying  in  approximately  the 
same  plane  and  making  a  spreading,  fan-like  spray.  Cones  scarcely  £  in.  (1.27  cm. )  in 
length,  oblong,  with  loose,  truncate  scales,  and  of  a  light-brown  or  brownish-yellow 
color;  seeds  winged  all  round 

(The  specific  name,  occidentals,  is  the  Latin  for  western,,  meaning  here  of  the 
Western  Hemisphere.) 

A  tree  not  often  over  60  ft.  (18  m.)  in  height  with  a  thick  trunk,  some- 
times 4  ft.  (1.22  in.)  in  diameter  at  base,  rapidly  diminishing  in  size 
upwards,  and  frequently  somewhat  curved  at  the  base.  The  heart-wood 
is  of  light-brown  color,  often  with  a  slightly  reddish  tint;  sap-wood, 
which  is  very  thin,  lighter. 

HABITAT. —  Northern  United  States  and  northward  to  British  America, 
southward  little,  if  any,  beyond  the  latitude  of  central  Pennsylvania, 
excepting  along  the  mountains.  It  is  found  in  swamps  and  along  river 
banks  and  lake  shores,  where  the  soil  is  considerably  moist.  A  very 
abundant  tree  in  many  sections. 

PHYSICAL  PROPERTIES. — Wood  very  light,  soft  and  close-grained, 
compact,  not  strong,  easily  split  and  durable.  It  possesses  a  rather  pleas- 
ant and  characteristic  odor.  Specific  Gravity,  0.3164;  Percentage  of 
Ash,  0.37;  Relative  Approximate  Fuel  Value,  0.3152;  Coefficient  of  Elas- 
ticity, 53311;  Modulus  of  Rupture,  512;  Resistance  to  Longitudinal 
Pressure,  306;  Resistance  to  Indentation,  60;  Weight  of  a  Cubic  Foot 
in  Pounds,  19.72. 

USES. —  The  principal  use  of  this  timber  is  for  fence-posts  and  tele- 
graph-poles, for  which  it  is  excellent  and  very  extensively  used.  It  is 
among  the  best  of  our  timbers  on  account  of  its  lightness,  as  well  as 
other  good  qualities,  for  the  siding  of  skiffs,  canoes  etc.,  which  must  be 
light  in  order  to  be  easily  carried  over  portages.  We  have  seen  one 
made  of  this  wood,  and  weighing  only  10^  Ibs.,  yet  large  enough  to 
carry  one  man  and  baggage  over  quiet  waters, —  probably  the  lightest 
wooden  craft  ever  used  in  navigation.  Such  is  the  lightness,  durability 
and  strength  of  this  timber.  White  Cedar  is  largely  used  for  shingles, 
and  to  some  extent  for  pails,  buckets  etc. 

As  an  ornamental  tree,  particularly  for  hedges,  it  is  very  useful.  For 
the  latter  use  it  is  often  employed,  and,  when  rightly  attended  to,  is 
scarcely  surpassed  in  compactness  and  neatness. 

MEDICINAL  PROPERTIES.  —  A  decoction  or  tincture  of  the  leaves  of  this 
tree  is  sometimes  used  in  intermittent  -fevers,  coughs,  scurvy,  rheu- 


25.    JUNIPEKUS   VlRGINIANA —  RED    CEDAR.  75 

matism  etc.  Made  into  an  ointment,  with  lard  or  other  animal  fat,  it 
is  sometimes  successfully  used  as  an  external  application  in  rheumatism 
and  other  local  complaints.  A  volatile  oil,  extracted  from  the  leaves,  is 
sometimes  successfully  used  its  a  remedy  for  worms.* 

GENUS  JUNIPERUS,  L. 

Leaves  evergreen,  opposite  or  in,  whorls  of  three,  rigid  and  of  two  forms,  one  awl- 
shaped  and  the  other  scale-like,  often  both  found  on  the  same  bush  or  tree.  Flowers 
dioecious,  rarely  monoecious,  in  very  small  catkins.  Sterile  catkins  ovate,  with  shield- 
shaped  scales,  each  bearing  at  its  base  3-7  anther-cells.  Fertile  catkins  ovoid  or 
globose,  with  few  (3-5)  fleshy,  concave,  united  scales,  each  bearing  one  ovule,  and 
these  together  becoming  in  Fruit  a  sort  of  berry,  but  in  reality  an  altered  cone, 
scaly-bracted  underneath,  blackish  or  bluish  in  color,  and  furnished  with  a  lighter- 
colored  bloom,  and  containing  from  1-8  bony,  wingless  seeds;  cotyledons,  two. 

(Juniperus  is  the  classical  Latin  name  of  the  Juniper.) 


'  25.  JUNIPERUS  VIRGINIANA,  L. 

RED  CEDAR,  SAVIN,  PENCIL  CEDAR. 
Ger.,  Virginischer   Wacliolder;  Fr.,  Genevrier;  Sp.,  Sabina. 

Leaves  mostly  opposite,  small,  connate- decurrent  (not  articulated)  on  flie  stem  in 
four  ranks,  and  of  two  forms,  one  acutish,  scale-like,  imbricated  and  closely 
appressed,  making  a  flat,  two-edged  branchlet,  the  other  awl-shaped,  sharp-pointed, 
nearly  £  in.  (1.27  cm.)  in  length,  loose  and  spreading.  Fruit  a  small  berry  a  little 
larger  than  a  pepper-corn,  dark  blue,  covered  with  a  whitish  powder,  erect  on  the 
branchlet. 

(Virginiana,  Lat.  for  Virginian,  but  applied  to  the  species  when  "Virginia" 
meant  much  more  territory  than  at  present.) 

A  tree  sometimes  80  ft.  (24  m.)  in  height  and  3  ft.  (0.91  m.)  or  more  in 
thickness  of  base,  but  usually  much  smaller.  It  is  ordinarily  of  a  short 
pyramidal  form  with  branches  springing  from  near  the  ground  and 
reaching  far  out  horizontally,  but  in  some  localities,  noticeably  along  the 
banks  of  the  Hudson  river  for  example,  it  assumes  a  very  slender,  trim 
pyramidal  form,  or  almost  lanceolate  in  outline,  with  rounded  base  and 
smooth  straight  trunk  several  feet  in  length  before  branching.  The 
foliage  is  of  a  dark-green  color,  and  the  bark  on  old  trunks  has  usually 
a  ragged  appearance,  the  outer  layer  peeling  off  vertically  in  light 
ribbon-like  strips  and  swinging  loosely  in  the  wind. 

HABITAT. —  Of  very  extensive  geographical  distribution,  being  found 
from  Canada  southward  to  the  peninsula  of  Florida,  and  westward  to 
the  Rocky  Mountains,  although  unknown  in  many  localities  within  these 
limits,  probably  owing  to  unfavorable  conditions  of  soil  or  atmosphere. 
In  the  north  of  its  range  it  is  found  growing  along  rocky  limestone 
ridges,  but  in  the  south  often  in  swamps. 

*U.  S.  Dispensatory,  15th  ed.,  p.  1432. 


76  HOUGH'S  AMERICAN  WOODS. 

PHYSICAL  PROPERTIES. —  Wood  light,  soft,  close-grained,  compact, 
not  strong,  easily  worked  and  one  of  the  most  durable  of  our  timbers  in 
contact  with  the  soil,  strongly  and  pleasantly  odorous,  of  a  dull-red  color 
inclining  somewhat  to  purple  and  fading  on  exposure  to  a  purplish- 
brown;  sap-wood  thin  and  whitish.  Specific  Gravity,  0.4926;  Per- 
centage of  Ash)  0.13;  Relative  Approximate  Fuel  Value,  0.492;  Coef- 
ficient of  Elasticity,  66992;  Modulus  of  Rupture,  740;  Resistance  to  Longi- 
tudinal Pressure,  416;  Resistance  to  Indentation,  148;  Weight  of  a  Cubic 
Foot  in  Pounds,  30.70. 

USES. —  This  is  the  timber  from  which  lead-pencil  cases  are  almost 
exclusively  made.  Its  great  durability  in  contact  with  the  soil  ranks  it 
as  -probably  the  best  of  our  timbers  for  fence  posts,  railway  ties,  sills, 
etc.,  when  large  enough.  It  is  used  to  some  extent  in  interior  finish, 
and  for  caskets  and  cabinet  work.  For  bureau  drawers  and  the  like  it 
is  particularly  suited,  owing  to  the  fact  that  its  odor  tends  to  keep  away 
moths. 

MEDICINAL  PROPERTIES. —  The  tops,  i.  e.  the  leaves  and  twigs,  of  this 
tree  possess  stimulant,  anthelmintic  and  other  properties.  Made  into 
a  cerate  and  applied  externally  it  acts  as  a  valuable  irritant.  It  is  some- 
times substituted  for  the  European  Savine,  but  is  less  effectual  in  its 
action.  The  berries  possess  diuretic  properties.* 

*U.  &.  Dispensatory,  15th  ed.,  pp.  392  and  1253-4. 


INDEX. 


(For  Index  to  the  Structural  Botany  Treated  in  the  Introduction,  see  p.  2fi.) 


No.  Page. 

Abedul  amarillo 17  64 

Abeto  balsamico  ... 22  71 

Canadense 21  70 

negro 20  69 

Abies  lalsamea 22  71 

Ganadensis 21  70 

nigra 20  69 

Acer  saccharinum 7  48 

Aesculus  Hippocastanum 6.  47 

Ailante  glanduleux 4  44 

Ailanthus 4  44 

Ailanthus  glandulosus 4  44 

Alamo  de  diente  grande 18  66 

Almez  Americano 12  57 

ANACARDIACE^E 45 

Angelica-Tree 8  52 

ANGIOSPERM^E 38 

Aralia  espineuse 8  52 

Aralia  espinosa 8  52 

Aralia  spinosa 8  52 

ARALIACE.E 52 

Arbor-  Vites 24  74 

Arce  de  azucar 7  48 

Ash,  White 10  54 

Aspen,  Large-toothed    18  66 

Balm-of -Gilead  Fir 22  71 

Balsam  Fir 22  71 

Balsam-Tanne .- 22  71 

Barniz  f also  de  Japan 4  44 

Basswood . . .       3  42 

Beecli 16  63 

Bee  Tree 3  42 

BETULACE^E 64 

Betula  lutea 17  64 

Birch  Family 64 

Birds-eye  Maple 7b  51 

Black  Gum 9  53 

Spruce 20  69 

Blister  Maple 7a  50 

Bouleau  jaune 17  64 

Buche,  Amerikanische 16  63 

Butternut 14  60 

Button-ball  Tree 13  59 

Buttonwood 13  59 

Canoe-wood 2  40 

Castano  de  caballo 6  47 

Cedar,  Pencil 25  75 

Red 25  75 

White..  .  24  74 


No.  Page. 

Celtis  occidentalis 12  57 

Chene  rouge 15  62 

Cheshew  Family 45 

CONIFERS 67 

CORNACE^S 53 

CRYPTOGAMOUS  PLANTS 37 

Cucumber  Tree 1  38 

CUPULIFER^E 61 

DICOTYLEDONOUS  PLANTS 37 

Dogwood  Family 53 

Dornige  Bergangelike 8  52 

Double  Spruce 20  69 

Drusiger  Gotterbaum 4  44 

Elm  Family 55 

Slippery 11  55 

ENDOGENOUS  PLANTS 38 

Epinette  noire 20  69 

Erable  a  sucre 7  48 

Esclie,  Amerikanische. 10  54 

Espe,  Groszgezante 18  66 

EXOGENOUS  PLANTS 37 

Fagus  ferruginea  . .    . , 16  63 

False  Elm 12  57 

Fichte,  Harzige 19  68 

Fraxinus  Americana 10  54 

Frene  Ainericam 10  54 

Fresno  Americano 10  54 

Gelbe  Birke 17  64 

Genevrier 25  75 

Ginseng  Family ....... 52 

Glossary  and  Index  to  Structural 

Botany 26 

Gommier  multifiore    9  53 

Groszgezante  Espe    18  66 

Gum-Tree 9  53 

GYMNOSPERM^E 67 

Hackberry 12  57 

Hackmatack 23  72 

Hard  Maple 7  48 

Harzige  Fichte 19  68 

Haya  Americana 16  63 

Hemlock 21  70 

Hercules'  Club 8  52 

Hetre  d'  Amerique 16  63 

Hirschkolben  Sumach 5  45 


78 


ItfDEX. 


No.  Page. 
Horse  Chestnut 6      47 

JUGLANDACE.E 60 

Juglans  cinerea 14      60 

Juniper  us  Virginiana 25      75 


Key,  Based  upon  Flowers. 
Fruit  .  , . 
Leaves . , 


Landscape  Maple 7a  51 

Langgespitzte  Magnolia 1  1 38 

Larch 23  72 

Larche,  Anierikanische 23  72 

Large-toothed  Poplar 18  66 

Larice  Americana 23  72 

Larix  Americana 23  72 

Lebendbaum,  Amerikanische  ...   24  74 

Lime-Tree 3  42 

Lin  or  Linden,  American 3  42 

Linde,  Amerikanische 3  42 

Liriodendron  Titlipifera 2  40 

Magnolia  acuminata 1  38 

Magnolia  acuminada 1  38 

a  feuilles  pointes 1  38 

Magnolia  Family 38 

MAGNOLTACE^E 38 

Maple,  Sugar 7  48 

Marronier  d'  Inde 6  47 

Meleze  Americain 23  72 

Micocoulier  occidental 12  57 

MONOCOTYLEDONOUS  PLANTS 38 

Moose  Elm 11  55 

Mountain  Magnolia 1  38 

Nettle-Tree..                                  .  12  57 

Nogalgris 14  60 

Norway  Pine 19  68 

Noyer  cendre 14  60 

Nyssa  multiflora 9  53 

Oak  Family 61 

Red 15  62 

Oil-Nut 14  60 

OLEACE.E 54 

Olive  Family 54 

Olmo  Colorado 11  55 

Orme  gras 11  55 

Pencil  Cedar 25  75 

Pepperidge 9  53 

Peruche    21  70 

Peuplier  a  grandes  dents 18  66 

PH^ENOGAMOUS  PLANTS 37 

PinMaple 7b  51 

Pin  rouge 19  68 

Pine  Family 67 

Red  or  "  Norway  " 19  68 

Pino  rizado 19  68 

Pinus  resinosa 19  68 

Poplar,  Large-toothed 18  66 


No.  Page. 

Populus  grandidentata 18  66 

Plane-Tree 13  59 

Plane- Tree  Family 58 

PLATANACE^E 53 

Platane  Americaiu 13  59 

Platane,  Amerikanische . .  13  59 

Platano  de  America 13  59 

Platanus  occidentals 13  59 

Quercus  rubra 15  62 

Red  Cedar.- 25  75 

Elm 11  55 

Oak 15  62 

Pine 19  68 

Spruce 20  69 

Ehus  typhina 5  45 

Roble  rojo 15  62 

Rock  Maple 7  48 

Roszkastanie 6  47 

Rothe  "Eiche 15  62 

Ulme 11  55 

Sabina 25  75 

SALICACE^E 65 

Sapin  baumier 22  71 

SAPINDACE,E 46 

Sauer  Gummibaum 9  53 

Savin 25  75 

Schierling-Tanne 21  70 

Schwartztanne 20  69 

SlMARUBACE^E 43 

Slippery  Elm 11  55 

Soapberry  Family 46 

Sour  Gum 9  53 

Spruce,  Black,  Double  or  Red. . .  20  69 

Stag-horn  Sumach    5  45 

Sugar  Maple 7  48 

Sugarberry 12  57 

Sugar-Tree    7  48 

Sumac  ....    5  45 

Sumach 5  45 

Sycamore 13  59 

Tamarack 23  72 

Tilia  Americana 3  42 

Toothache-Tree 8  52 

Thuja  d'  Occident 24  74 

Thuja  occidentalis 24  74 

TILIACE/E 42 

Tilio  Americano. 3  42 

Tilleul  d'  Amerique 3  42 

Tree-of-IIeaveu 4  44 

Tulip-Tree 2  40 

Tulpenbaum 2  40 

Tulipier 2  40 

Tulipifero 2  40 

Tupelo 9  53 

Tuya  Occidental 24  74 

ULMACE^E 55 

Ulmus  fulva 11  55 


INDEX. 


79 


No.  Page. 

Wacholder,  Virginischer 25      75 

Wallnussbaum,  Aschgrauer 14      60 


Walnut  Family 

White  Ash  . .  10 


Cedar , 24  74 

Poplar 2  40 

Walnut 14  60 

White-wood 2  40 

White-wood 18  65 


No.  Page. 

Willow  Family 65 

Yellow  Gum 9  53 

Poplar 2  40 

Zurgelbaum,  Abendlandischer  . .   12  57 

Zuker  Ahorn 7  48 

Zumaque 5  45 


1.    MAGNOLIA  ACUMSNATA,    L 

Cucumber-Tree,  Mountain  Magnolia, 


TRANSVERSE      SECTION. 


SECTION. 


TAMCBMTIAi.      SECTION. 


ff.  Langgespitzte  Magnolia,         f>»  Magno 
tJ'JiMagnolia  a  feuilles  pointes, 


Manolia  acuminada 


f  MiUJUifcl)  AND 


Horon,  B.  A.,  LOWTII.L*.  N.  Y.,  U  8.  A. 


1.    MAGNOLIA  ACUMiNATA,    I 

Cucumber-Tree,  Mountain  Magnolia, 


TRANSVERSE      SECTION. 


SECTION. 


TANGBMTIAL      SECTION. 


Langgespitzte  Magnolia,       *>}-'•  Magnolia  acuminada 
tlliMagnolia  a  feuilles  pointes, 

f  t'BM»H»t»  AM<  SXCTtONB  MADS  BT   KoKKTN  B.    HotTOn,   T>.  A.,  Ix>WTtLli«.  N.   Y.,  U    8.    A. 


LIRIODENDRON    TULIPIFERA,    L. 

Tulip-Tree,    White-Wood,    White  or  Yellcw  "Poplar," 

•anoe-Wood. 


HBBE 


TRANSVERSE      SECTION. 


RADIAL      SECTION. 


TANGENTIAL      SECTION. 


Tulpenbaum. 


Tulipier.       §f  ,  Tolipifero. 


HOUGH,  K  A.,  I.OWTII.L*,  N.  T.,  U.  S.  A. 


2.    LIRIODENDRON    TULIPIFERA,    L 

Tulip-Tree,    White-Wood,    White  or  Yellow  "  Poplar," 

oe-Wood, 


TRANSVERSE      SECTION. 


RADIAL      SECTION. 


TANGENTIAL.       SECTION, 


Tulpenbaum, 


F».  HOUGH,  B.  A.,  I.OWTUL.LE,  N.  Y.,  U 


3V  TILIA  AMERICANA,    L. 
Basswood,  American  Linden  or  Lin,  Lime-Tree,  Bee-Tree, 


TRANSVERSE      SECTION. 


RADIAL      SECTION. 


•TAMOCNTRAfc.       SECTION. 


;§ffi  Amerikanisclie  Linda* 

,"SL          .-    v 


Tilio  AmericanOt 


FoBUsirao  AMI»  Sacnorn  su»m  »T  Bvwnm  B.  Bov«»,  B.  A.,  Lowviua,  K  .  Y.  ^.  ft,  A. 


3.    TILIA  AMERICANA,    L 

Basswoodj  American  Linden  or  Lin,  Lime-Tre©,  Bee-Tree, 


TRANSVERSE   SECTION. 


RADIAL   SECTION. 


••CTIOM. 


Amerikanische  Linde 


Sfo  Tilluei  df  Amerique, 

menom  MAM  »T  E«H«rx  B.  Moves,  B.  A,,  JUwnuia.  K.  Yn  ¥.  I.  A. 


4.    AILANTHUS  GLANDULOSUS,    DESF, 
Ailanthus,  Tree-of-Heayen. 


TRAM6VEKSI      SECTION. 


•  •    -    .  •_.- , 


--    :        - 


RADIAL      SECTION. 


•" 


T  ANOINT!  At      SECTION. 


Driisiger  Gbkterbaum, 


Barniz  falso  de  Japan. 


Aylante  glandnleux.- 


PUBLISHBD  AND  SlCXIONS  MABK  BI  EoMEYN  B.  HOUGH,  B.  A,,  LoWVILLB,  Iff.  Y.,  U.  S.  A» 


4.    AILANTHUS  GLANDULOSUS,    DESF 

Ailanthus,  Tree-of-Heaven* 


TRANSVERSE      SECTION. 


RADIAL      SECTION. 


TANGENTIAL       SECTION. 


Drosrer  Gbiterbaum, 


um,  p*  Barniz  falso  dc  Japan, 

Aylante  glauduleux. 


B.  A.,  LOWVIIXB,  N.  Y^  U.  S.  A. 


5.    RHUS  TYPHINA,    L. 

Sumach,  Stag-horn  Sumach,  Virginian  Sumach 


TRANSVERSE      SCCTIfti*. 


Hirschkolben  Sum&cL 


Zumaqw. 


5.    RHUS  TYPHINA,    L. 

Sumach,  Stag-horn  Sumach,  Virginian  Sumacls 


. 


TRANSVERSE      SECTION. 


RADIAL      S20TI9*, 


fill,  Hirschkolben  Sornaeh.      fc  Smnac.     p»  Zumaque. 


6.    AESCULUS  HIPPOCASTANUM,    L 
Horse  Chestnut. 


TRANSVERSE      SECTION, 


RADIAL       SECTION. 


TANGENTIAL       SECTION. 


Roszkastanie, 


Castano  de  caballo, 


Marronier  d'Inde. 


PUBLISHED  AMD  SECTIONS  MADE  BT  KOWKYK  B.  HOI;«H.  B  A..  IOWVILLB.  N  Y^  U  S.  A. 


6.    AESCULUS  HIPPOCASTANUM,    L 

Horse  Chestnut, 


TRANSVERSE      SECTION. 


RADIAL      SECTION, 


TANGENTIAL       SECTION, 


Eoszkastanie. 


Castano  de  caballo, 


Marronier  d'Inde. 


PUBLISHED  AMD  SECTIONS  MAI> 


OUGH,    B.  A.,  1  OWVILLB,  N    Yn  U.  S.  A. 


7.   ACER  SACCHARINUM,   WANG. 
Sugar  Maple,  Hard  Maple,  Bock  Maple,  Sugar-Tree 


TRAIMVCBtl      SB«Tft*«. 


Zucker  Ahorn.  9i,  EieHe  a  Svcie,     f ,  Arc*  de  azucsr, 


7>    ACER  SACCHARJNUy,    WANG 
Sugar  Maple,  Hard  Maple,  Bock  Maple,  Sugg, 


TRAMSVER8I   SECTION, 


RADIAL   •EOTIOM. 


ftC«Tt*M, 


Zucker  Aliorn.  SFl*  Erablea  Sucre,  §),  Arce  de  aiuca 


FVMJMHCD  AND  SXCTIOIWS  XA8«  JB2  K 


7a.    ACER  SACCHARINUM,    WANG. 
Sugar  Maple-Blister  Figure,  Blister  Maple,  Landscape  Maple. 


Bla'scien  Ahorr. 


FVBUMUD  AM»  SBCVIOX* 


Arce  con  ampollas, 


Erable  p  i 


ik,  A,.  Lomriwa.  Jl.  T«  IT.  f.  A* 


7°.   ACER  SACCHAR1NUM,    WANG. 
Sugar  Maple-Blister  Figure,  Blister  Maple,  Landscape  Maple 


YRAMCVSASfl 


Bla^cien  Ahorr, 


Aroe  con  tmpollas, 


f  l.  Brablo 


7*.   ACER  SACCHARINUM,   WAN& 
Sugar  Maple-Birds-eye  Figure,  Birds-eye  Maple,  KB  Maple, 


TRANSVERSE      SECTION. 


RAPIAL      •••TI0N. 


TANfrtNTIM. 


Augen  Ahorn, 


*>.  Arce  ojo  de  paxaro. 


Erable  oeil  d'oiseau. 


PtrXUSUO)  AK»  SECTION*  «4»«  BT    1,'OMETX  IT    Hot'**,   U.  ^.,  LOWT  U4I,  H.  T  ,   U   8-  A 


7*>.   ACER  SACCHARINUM,   WANG* 
Sugar  Maple-~Birds-eye  Figure,  Birds-eye  Maple,  Pin  Maple, 


TRANSVERSE      SECTION. 


RADIAL      SCCTt*<M. 


Augen  Ahorn, 


rce  qjo  d§  p«aro, 


Erable  oeil 


8.    ARAUA  SPINOSA,    L. 

Hercules'  Club,  Angelica-Tree,  Toothache-Tree, 


TRANSVERSE      SECTION* 


RADIAU      SECTION. 


A*O :     TIAL       SICtlON. 


§«**  Dornige  Bergangelike. 


Aralia  espinosa, 


tlf.  Aralia  es 


nco  AK»  SxcnoNs  MAIXC  BT  Ro»«t»  B.  HOP«H,  R  A.,  LOWVIIXB,  N.  T.«  U.  S.  A. 


8.    ARALIA  SPINOSA,    L, 

Hercules'  Club,  Angelica-tree,  Toothache-Tree, 


TRANSVERSE      SECTION. 


RADIAU      SECTION. 


A  .0     v T IAL       SI  CT  JON. 


8f  It  Dornige  Ber^angelike.  £{)*  Aralia  espinosa, 

tli.  Aralia  espinerae. 


PUBLISHED  A»B  SECTIONS  MADE  BT  ROMETN  B.  HOCCH,  B.  A. 


9.    NYSSA  MULTIFLORAi   WANG. 

fapelo,  Pepperidge,  Bl(Msk  or  Yellow  Gum,  Soitr  3m. 


TAMOCKTIAL 


Saner  Gummibaume 


Gommier  nmltiflore* 


ItoaucTK  B.  Hov««,  B.  A., 


a    NYSSA  MULTIFLORA,   WANG, 
Tupelo,  Pepperidge,  Black  or  Yellow  Gum,  Sour  Gum. 


MAftAAL      *««TtQtt. 


TAMOCNTIAL 


§«f-i  Sauer  Gummibaum. 

S?f  i  Gommier  multiflore. 


10,    FRAXINUS  AMERICANA,    L 


White  Ash. 


TRANSVERSE       SECTION. 


RADIAL      SKCTIO*. 


TANC£*T|AL        SECTION. 


§fli  Amerikamsche  Esche. 


he,  r>p*  Fresno 

Frene  Americairi. 


ia    FRAXINUS  AMERICANA,    L. 

White  Ash, 


•CCYIOM. 


• 


rAMC€«TIAL 


Amtrikaniache  Esche. 


Fresno  Americano, 


America  in 


s}  AK»  SKenom  «u»»  BY  ROXVTK  B.  Hov«».  B.  A. 


11.    U.LMUS  FULVA,    MICH. 
Slippwy  Elm,  MioseEla. 


TRAMS  vfcMSfi 


/ 

SHPiiiiilT^ 


RADIAL      SC«TI9M. 


TAIMMNTIM. 


Eothe  Ulme. 


Olmo  Colorado, 


Onne  gras, 


F®*LMWK»  ANX>  SBOTIOfHS  KAX>1  BT  ROXVTH  B.  HOCOH,  B.  A.,  LcwtDUA,  V*-TM  U.  8.  A, 


11.    ULMUS  FULVA,    MICH. 
Slipptry  Elm,      Red  Elm,      M«ose  El] 


•^m.  ~F 


:  - 

-     : 


- 


Rotlie  Ulme. 


Orrne  gras. 


rauWtt»  AHB  Sxanoaro  KADI  BT  BOX*TH  B.  HOOCH,  B.  A., 


12.    CELTIS  OCCIDENTALS    L 


Siigarberry,  Hackberry, 


THAN*  VERSE      SECTION, 


•  "•*  i ••**#•,.:  >>.  ,  .  ,. 


TAMOSNTIM.       SEOTMMI. 


Abendlandischer  Ziirgellanm.  Sf).  Almez  Aatericano, 
3H,  Micoconlier  oeoidental 


*«Ni  BT  ROMBTM  B.  HOCT«M,  B.  A.,  Letrr«ijm,K.     .,  U.  S 


12,    CELTIS  OCCIDENTAL-IS,    L 

S "igor-berry,  Hackberry,  Nettie-Tret,  False  Elm, 


TRANSVERSE      SECTION, 


SECTMMI 


fid,  Abendlafldiscber  Ztirgeltamc.  §f).  Almez  A»ericaao, 
H  Mieocoulier  occidental 


•xasn,  ButtiBWiM,  ltttt»»te 


Tktud  le 


•     •  •    . .- 


BattmwMd,  B&tltt4ill,  Fliuu^bm 


14.   JUGLANS  CINEREA,    L. 

Butternut.  White-Walnut,  Oil-Nut. 


TRANSVERSE      MOTION. 


RADIAL      SECTION. 


TANGENTIAL       SECTION. 


Aschgrauer  Wallmiszbauin.  ,  o>f>i  Nogal  gris, 
Noyer  cendr  6. 


PUBLISHED  A»D  SBCTI^KS  MAMS  BT  ROMKYN  B  HOUGH,  B.  A.,  LOWVU.LB,  N.  T.,  U.  S.  A. 


14,    JUGLANS  CINEREA,    L. 


Butternut, 


White-Walnut, 


Oil-Nut, 


TRANSVERSE   SECTION. 


RADIAL   SECTION. 


TANGENTIAL 


Aschgrauer  WaUnuszbaum, 
Sfii  Noyer  cendr6, 


Nogal  gris, 


PUBLISHED  XMD  SKCTIOKS  XADB  BT  ROMBYN  B.  HOUGH,  B.  A.,  LCWVILLK,  N.  Y.,  U.  S.  A. 


15,    QUERCUS  RUBRA,    L 
Bed  Oak, 


TftAMSVERtfg      ttSCTION. 


RADIAL      CfiOTiOM. 


=  ~ 


TANQCNTIAL     •lOTIOM. 


ofl*  Both  Eiche. 


Ch6ne  rou^e, 


Roble  rojo. 


HOUSH,  B.  A.,  Tonnru 


15.   QUERCUS  RUBRA,    L 


TftA««VBK«C 


RADIAL      ••OTIOMo 


8fl-.Eoth  Eiche. 


ChSne  wasp, 


16,    FAGUS  FERRUGINEA,  AIT, 

American  Beech. 


TRANSVERSE   SECTION. 


RADIAL  SECTION. 


TANGENTIAL   SECTION. 


Amerikanische  Buches    Sj),  Haya  Americana. 
§fo  E6tre  d'Amerique. 


PUBUttUD  AMD  8KCOTOK8  XADB  BT  BOMTM  B,  HOTOH,  B.  A.»  LOWIIXE,  N.  Y.,  U.  8.  A. 


16.    FAGUS  FERRUGINEA,  AIT. 

American  Beech. 


TRANSVERSE      MOTION, 


RADIAL      SECTION. 


TANGENTIAL       MOTION. 


W,  Amerikanische  Bnchei      j)i  Haya  Americana, 
Shfe  H^tre  d'Amerique, 

PUBUSBBD  ABJD  SacmoHB  JUUDB  BT  BowtTK  B.  HOUGH,  B.  A.,  Lowvu&B,  N.  TM  U.  8.  A. 


17.    BETULA  LUTEA,  MICHX.  F. 

Yellow  Birch,  Gray  Bircla, 


TRAN8VER8E      SECTION. 


RADIAL      SECTION. 


TANGENTIAL       SECTION, 


Gelbe  Birke,         Bouleaujanne.      )<  Abedul  ainarillo, 


PUBXIBHEB  AJRD  SBOTION8  MADK  BT  BOMKTK  B.  HoOOH,  B.  A.,  LOWVUJLB,  N.  Y.,  U 


17.    BETULA  LUTEA,  MICHX.  F. 

Yellow  Birch,  Gray  Birch, 


TRANSVERSE      SECTION, 


RADIAL      SECTION. 


TANGENTIAL,       SECTION. 


Gelbe  Birke.  Sfo  Bouleau  jaune.  §>j><  Abedul  amarillo, 


PUBUSHBD  AMD  SECTIONS  XAD8  BT  ROMKTK  B.  HO0QH,  B.  A.,  LoWrtXJUB,  N.  Y.,   U.  3.   A. 


1 8.    POPULUS  GRANDIDENTATA,  MICHX. 

Large-toothed  Poplar  or  Aspen,  Large  Poplar,  White-Wood* 


\ 


V 


TRANSVERSE      SECTION. 


RADIAL      SECTION. 


TANGENTIAL       SECTION. 


Groszgez&nte  Espe,         Sj)<  Alamo  de  diente  grande. 
"ffltt  Peuplier  a  grandes  dents. 

PUBLIflHBD  AHB  JSWJTIONS  MADE  BT  ROICBYN  B.  HODOH,  B.  A.,  LcwVtLMt,  N.  T.,  U.  8.  A. 


18.    POPULUS  GRANDIDENTATA,  MICHX. 

Large-toothed  Poplar  or  Aspen,  Large  Poplar,  White-Wood*. 


TRANSVERSE   SECTION. 


RADIAL   SECTION. 


TANGENTIAL   SECTION. 


Groszgezante  Espe, 


Alamo  de  diente  grande. 


Peuplier  a  grandes  dents, 


PUBUSKKD  AND  .SECTIONS  MADS  BT  ROKXTH  B.  HODOH.  B.  A.,  LCWVILLB,  N.  T.,  U.  8.  A. 


19.    PINUS  RESINOSA,  AIT. 

"Norway"  Pine, 


Bed  Pine, 


•••^••^•••i 


TRANSVERSE      SECTION. 


RADIAL      SECTION. 


TANQENTIAL       SECTION. 


Harzige  Fichte.   fl      Pin  rouge,     |)i  Pino  rizado 


PUBUSBED  A»D  SECTIONS  XADB  BT  ROXXTN  B.  HOUOH, 


19.    PINUS  RESINOSA,  AIT. 

Red  Pine,  "Norway"  Pine. 


TRANSVERSE      SECTION, 


RADIAL      SECTION. 


TANOfiMTIAL       SECTION. 


Earzige  Fichte,          Pin  rouge.     j)i  Pino  rizado. 


AMD  SBCTIOKB  XAOB  BY  ROXBYX  B.  HOUGH,  B.  A.,  LOWYIUA,  N.  TM  U.  8.  A. 


20.    ABIES  NIQR A, 'Pom- 
Black  Spruce,         Double  Spruce,         Bed  Spruce, 


TRANSVERSE      SECTION. 


RADIAL      SECTION. 


TANGENTIAL       SECTION. 


Schwartztanne,   SH,  Epinette  noire.    o>j>i  Abeto  negro, 


PUBLISHED  A»D  SKCTIOHS  MADB  BT  ROMBTV  B.  Hoaon,  B.  A.,  LCWVUJUB,  N.  Y.,  U.  S. 


20.    ABIES  NIGRA/PoiR. 

Black  Spruce,    Double  Spruce,    Bed  Spruce, 


TRANSVERSE   SECTION. 


RADIAL   SECTION. 


TANGENTIAL   SECTION. 


Schwartztanne,   §H,  Epinette  noire,    §>j)i  Abeto  negro, 


AMD  SBOTIOXS  XADK  BT  Roiurx  B.  Hoaoa,  B.  A.,  LCWIIXB,  N.  Y.,  U.  8.  A. 


21.    ABIES  CAN ADENSIS,  MICHX. 

Hemlock,  Hemlock  Fir, 


TRANSVERSE      SECTION. 


RADIAL      SECTION. 


TANGENTIAL       SECTION. 


§W<  ScMerling-Tanne,  !fifa  Peruche,  Sj),  Abeto  Oanadense, 


PUBUSHKD  AMD  SBOTIONS  MADB  BT  llOMKTN  B.  HOOOH,  B.  A.,  LCWVUUUB,  N.  T.,  U.  8.  A. 


21.    ABIES  CANADENSIS,  MICHX. 

Hemlock,  Hemlock  Fir, 


TRANSVERSE   SECTION. 


RADIAL   SECTION. 


TANGENTIAL   SECTION. 


ScMerling-Tanne,  $4*  Peruche.  §f),  Abeto  Canadense, 


PUBLISHED  AMD  SBCTIONS  KADB  BT  ROMBTN  B.  HOUOH,  B.  A.,  LCWVUOJS,  N.  Y.,  U.  3.  A. 


22.    ABIES  BALSAMEA,  MARSHALL. 

Balsam,          Balsam  Fir.         Balm-of-Gilead  Fir, 


TRANSVERSE      SECTION. 


RADIAL      SECTION. 


TANGENTIAL       SECTION. 


Balsam-Tanne, 


Abeto  balsamico. 


Sapin  baumier. 


POBUSHBD  ADD  SW3TIOKS  KADIS  BT  ROMBrN  B.  HOTOH,  B.  A.,  LoWVttLB,  N.  T.,  U.  8.  A. 


22.    ABIES  BALSAM EA,  MARSHALL. 

Balsam,          Balsam  Fir.         Balm-of-Gilead  Fir, 


TRANSVERSE   SECTION, 


RADIAL   SECTION. 


TANGENTIAL   SECTION. 


Balsam-Tanne.     Sf),  Abeto  balsamico, 
2fo  Sapin  baumier, 


PUBLISHED  AND  Sxcnoxs  XADK  BY  BOMBTH  B.  HODOH,  B.  A.,  Lowviuut,  N.  T.,  U. 


:  AMERICANA,  MiCHX. 

Tamarack,        American  or  Black  Larch,        Hackmatack 


m   m 


TRANSVERSE      SECTION. 


RADIAL      SECTION. 


TANGENTIAL       SECTION. 


Amerikanische  Larche,  §f ,  Larice  Americana. 
J^i  Meleze  Amerieain, 


PUBLI8HB»-iSD  SK3TIOK8  MADK  BT  ROMBTK  B.  HOUaK,  B.  A.,  LCWVIUJB,  N.  YM  U.  S.  A. 


23.    LARIX  AMERICANA,  MICHX. 

Tamarack,        American  or  Black  Larch,        Hackmatack, 


TRANSVERSE   SECTION. 


RADIAL   SECTION. 


TANGENTIAL   SECTION. 


Amerikanische  Larche*  Sj),  Larice  Americana. 


Meleze  Americain, 


PUBLISHED  -iSD  SECTIONS  MAPB  BY  BOMTH  B.  HO0«K,  B.  A.,  LcWVIUJB,  N.  TM  U,  S.  A. 


24.    THUJA  OCCIDENTALIS,    L. 

Arbor-Vitae,  White  Cedar, 


TRANSVERSE   SECTION. 


RADIAL   SECTION. 


TANGENTIAL. 


Amerikanisohe  Lebendbaum.      j),  Tuya  Occidental, 
Sk  Thuja  d'Occident. 

PUBUCHBD  AMB  SBCSTIOKS  MADK  BT  KOMKTN  B.  HOTOH,  B.  A.,  LOWVILU,  N.  T.,  U.  8.  A. 


24.    THUJA  OCCIDENTALIS,    L 

Arbor- Vitae,  White  Cedar. 


TRANSVERSE   SECTION. 


RADIAL   SECTION. 


TANGENTIAL   SECTION. 


Amerikanische  Lebendbaum. 


Thuja  d'Occident 


Tuya  Occidental, 


PUBLUBBD  AND  SXCTIOMB  MAD*  BY  ROMKTH  B.  HOUOH,  B.  A.,  LoWVIIXK,  N.  TM  U.  8.  A, 


25.    JUNIPERUS  VIRGINIANA,    L. 


Bed  Cedar,  Savin, 


Pencil  Ceder, 


TRANSVERSE   SECTION, 


RADIAL   SECTION. 


TANGENTIAL   SECTION. 


of^Yirginisctier  Waohftolder.  $4*  Genevrier.  S><  SaMna 


PUBUttUSD  ASD  SKCWOH8  XADB  BT  ROMBTM  B.  HOWH,  B.  A.,  LcWVttUB,  N.  YM  U. 


25.    JUNIPERUS  VIRGINIANA,    L. 

Bed  Cedar.  Savin,  Pencil  Ceder. 


TRANSVERSE   SECTION, 


RADIAL   SECTION. 


TANGENTIAL   SECTION. 


§WiYirginischer  Wachholder.  9^,  Genevrier,  §f>,  Sabina 


PuBi.i»am>  AMD  SECTIONS  KAI>K  BT  ROXVTK  B.  Hoaoa,  B.  A.,  LCWVILUB,  N.  Y.,  IT.  S.  A. 


JO 

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LOCBLEP 
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Bi'o),  Kb, 


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